Category Warbirds

Dimensions: rotorspan, 39 feet; length, 40 feet, 3 inches; height, 11 feet Weights: empty, 5,575 pounds; gross, 9,039 pounds Power plant: 2 x Rolls-Royce 1004D turboshaft engines

Performance: maximum speed, 183 miles per hour; ceiling, 14,900 feet; range, 120 miles Armament: 8 x Hellfire antitank missiles; various gunpods Service dates: 1990-

he mighty Mangusta is the first European attack helicopter and Italy’s most effective antitank weapons system. It is also the first such machine to utilize a fully computerized, integrated management system to ease crew workload.

The utility of helicopters as antitank weapons greatly increased in the 1970s with deployment of such armored behemoths as the Mil Mi 24 Hind and the Hughes AH-64 Apache. In 1972 the Italian army followed suit by advancing specifications for a new light attack helicopter, the first such ma­chine designed in Europe. This helicopter was in­tended to be unique from the start because of its highly automated nature. Once airborne, both flight and armament functions were to be monitored and controlled by an integrated computer system. Agusta, fresh from its success with the A 106 model, advanced a prototype in 1983. The new A 129 Mangusta (Mongoose) utilizes the rear half of the earlier A 106 with a totally redesigned front portion. It is heavily armored and highly angular, with stepped seating for the pilot and gunner. The
two high-powered engines are well protected and fed cold air to reduce infrared heat signatures. The main rotor has four blades and is made primarily from light composite materials. These are tough, able to withstand direct hits from Soviet-style 23mm cannon shells.

The A 129 is especially designed to function in a combat environment without excessively tiring the crew. For this reason the integrated flight system monitors and displays only seven basic functions to pilot and gunner so as not to distract them. The Mangusta is also capable of nighttime activity and mounts state-of-the-art night vision with infrared de­tection gear. For offensive purposes it usually car­ries eight Hellfire antitank missiles and a plethora of smaller rockets and gunpods. The Italian army has procured 60 of these hard-hitting machines, and they proved effective during UN peacekeeping ef­forts in Somalia. However, the Mangusta has yet to find customers abroad. They remain potent fighting systems, but the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991 may render them redundant in the antitank role.

Type: Heavy Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 76 feet, 9 inches; length, 41 feet, 4 inches; height, 14 feet, 5 inches

Weights: empty, 5,512 pounds; gross, 11,685 pounds

Power plant: 3 x 300-horsepower Fiat A-12 liquid-cooled inline engines

Performance: maximum speed, 94 miles per hour; ceiling, 14,764 feet; range, 400 miles

Armament: 3 x 7.7mm machine guns; up to 3,000 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1915-1928

taly possessed the largest strategic bomber pro­gram of World War I, one that exceed contempo­rary British and German efforts both in size and ca­pacity. The various Caproni aircraft involved were strong, functional machines and were well-suited to the tasks at hand.

Count Gianni Caproni founded his aircraft firm in 1908, and he manufactured successful civilian de­signs for several years. Italy, however, was unique among Western powers in that discussions pertaining to military applications of airpower were widespread. Caproni underscored this interest in 1913 when he constructed the world’s first strategic bomber, the Ca 30. This was a large triplane with a single nacelle housing the crew and three pusher engines. Subse­quent refinements culminated in the Ca 31, in which two of the pusher engines were mounted at the head of the booms in tractor configuration. This ungainly but practical machine entered production in 1914 as the Ca 1. Several were operational in August 1915 when, following Italy’s declaration of war against

Austria, two Capronis dropped bombs on Aisovizza. The age of strategic warfare had dawned.

As the war progressed, Caproni continually in­troduced better engines and performance in his tri­plane bombers. Because most of the targets were at great distances, and mountain ranges had to be crossed, the company placed greater emphasis on more powerful engines, greater lift, and payload. The Ca 4 was a major subtype that featured 350-horse­power engines with varying arrangements of nose – and tailgunners. The latter position required gunners to stand upright—fully exposed to frigid mountain air. The final Caproni bomber of the war was the Ca 5, which maintained the same general layout as before but reverted back to biplane status. Like all aircraft of this design, it was rather slow and ponder­ous, but it was ruggedly built and easy to fly. By war’s end, 740 of the giant craft had been assembled in var­ious subtypes, and they did excellent work. Several were subsequently converted into civilian airliners, while others performed military service until 1928.

Type: Strategic Bomber; Tanker; Reconnaissance

Dimensions: wingspan, 174 feet, 4 inches; length, 169 feet, 7 inches; height, 46 feet, 3 inches

Weights: empty, 166,975 pounds; gross, 423,280 pounds

Power plant: 4 x 20,944-pound thrust Mikulin RD-3M-500Aturbojet engines

Performance: maximum speed, 620 miles per hour; ceiling, 44,950 feet; range, 7,705 miles

Armament: 8 x 23mm cannons; up to 19,842 pounds of nuclear weapons

Service dates: 1956-

he impressive M 4, often touted as “Russia’s B-52,” was in fact a strategic white elephant. In­capable of bombing the United States, they found useful employment as tankers and reconnaissance craft.

Vladimir M. Myasishchev was a senior engi­neer with the Petlyakov design bureau until the end of World War II, when he was summarily told to re­tire. Having prior experience with the Soviet gulag system, he dutifully slipped into obscurity to teach aeronautics until 1949, when Stalin personally or­dered him to create his own design bureau. Mya – sishchev suddenly found himself tasked with creat­ing a huge intercontinental jet bomber capable of dropping atomic bombs on the United States and re­turning safely! Given the primitive nature of jet tech­nology at that time, the Tupolev rival firm opted to utilize turboprop engines instead. However, Mya­sishchev performed as ordered, and in 1954 the pro­totype M 4 Molot (Hammer) made its dramatic ap­pearance during the annual May Day flyover. It was a sight calculated to send shivers down the spines of

Western observers. The M 4 was huge, possessed swept wings and tail surfaces, and mounted four gi­gantic Mikulin turbojet engines buried in the wing roots. By 1956 around 200 of the giant craft had been delivered and constituted the bulk of Soviet strate­gic aviation. For many years thereafter, U. S. defense experts strained over the prospect of countering the Soviets’ intimidating “B-52.” NATO code named it BISON.

In reality, the M 4 possessed only half the thrust and range of Boeing’s B-52, a true interconti­nental bomber, and was scarcely a strategic threat. The Soviets understood this perfectly and continued building seemingly obsolete Tu 95 turboprop bombers for many years thereafter. By the 1960s the aging Myasishchev giants were employed only as tankers and maritime reconnaissance craft. One ex­ample, the VM-T Alant, was given twin rudders and employed to haul oversized parts for the Soviet space program. A few M 4s remain in service as test vehicles. Literally—and figuratively—the massive Molot was a big failure.

Type: Torpedo-Bomber; Light Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 48 feet, 10 inches; length, 34 feet; height, 12 feet, 6 inches

Weights: empty, 6,636 pounds; gross, 11,464 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 1,800-horsepower Nakajima Mamoru radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 235 miles per hour; ceiling, 27,100 feet; range, 1,237 miles

Armament: 1 x 7.7mm machine gun; 1,764 pounds of bombs or torpedoes

Service dates: 1938-1945

he stately B5N was the world’s best carrier – based torpedo-bomber during the initial phases of World War II. Although somewhat outdated, it sank several thousand tons of U. S. warships.

In 1935 the Imperial Japanese Navy sought quantum improvement in its torpedo-bombers, issu­ing specifications for a new all-metal monoplane. The new craft had to reflect stringent requirements: less than 50 feet in wingspan, capable of carrier stor­age, with at least four-hour endurance fully armed. The following year a Nakajima design team under Katsuji Nakamura conceived the B5N, which first flew in 1937. It was a low-wing monoplane with stressed skin and a long greenhouse canopy housing three crew members. It also possessed widetrack landing gear for ease of landing, and had extremely smooth lines. The B5N proved somewhat underpow­ered but entered production the following year. They performed well against weak Chinese defenses as a light bomber, but clearly a stronger engine was needed. By 1939 new versions with the Sakae 11 ra­dial engine were produced, with little overall im­
provement. However, the gentle-handling B5N, once teamed with the Long Lance torpedo, a notorious shipkiller, was a weapon of great potential. At the onset of the Pacific war in December 1941, B5Ns formed the core of elite Japanese carrier aviation. They received the Allied code name Kate.

The deadly effectiveness of the B5N was un­derscored during the attack on Pearl Harbor when 146, flying as light bombers and torpedo craft, sank eight U. S. battleships. Thereafter, in a succession of naval engagements that ranged throughout the eastern Pacific, Kates were responsible for sinking or severely damaging the carriers USS Lexington, USS Yorktown, and USS Hornet by October 1942. But Japanese forces were severely pummeled in these affairs, and the Americans slowly acquired air superiority with better fighters. Thereafter, Kates became easy targets and suffered severe losses until 1944, when they finally withdrew from frontline service. Several were then fitted with radar and performed antisubmarine patrols until the war’s end.

Dimensions: wingspan, 48 feet, 10 inches; length, 35 feet, 7 inches; height, 12 feet, 5 inches Weights: empty, 6,636 pounds; gross, 12,456 pounds Power plant: 1 x 1,850-horsepower Mitsubishi MK4T Kasei radial engine Performance: maximum speed, 299 miles per hour; ceiling, 29,660 feet; range, 1,085 miles Armament: 1 x 7.7mm machine gun; 1 x 12.7mm machine gun; 1 x 1,764 pound torpedo Service dates: 1944-1945

he rugged Jill, as it was known to the Allies, was a tardy entry to World War II intended to replace the earlier and more famous Kate. A capable ma­chine, it was continually beset by engine problems and inexperienced crews.

By 1939 the Imperial Japanese Navy realized that a replacement of the aging B5N torpedo-bomber was becoming a military necessity. The naval staff then approached Nakajima and suggested a new craft, based upon existing designs, that would employ the widely manufactured Mitsubishi Kasei radial engine. The ensuing B6N was then developed by Kenichi Mat – sumura, who took the liberty of powering it with the company’s new and untested Mamoru engine. This air­plane showed strong family resemblance to the B5N and sported its big engine in an oversized cowling. An­other unique feature was the oil cooler, which was off­set to the left so as not to interfere with torpedo­launching. Tests revealed the plane to be faster than the old Kate but less easily handled. Furthermore, the B6N suffered from prolonged development because
the Mamoru engine vibrated strongly and tended to overheat. It was not until 1943 that these teething problems were resolved and the B6N could enter pro­duction as the Tenzan (Heavenly Mountain). The B6N was superior in some technical aspects to the Grum­man TBF Avenger and Fairey Barracuda, but by then the Japanese navy was in dire straits.

The B6N, code named Jill, was a fine torpedo platform, but it was deployed at a time when the Americans enjoyed total air superiority. Moreover, sheer size restricted it to operating from the biggest carriers, and it frequently went into battle bereft of fighter escort. Consequently, in a succession of bat­tles ranging from Bougainville to Okinawa, most B6Ns were shot down before ever reaching their tar­gets. Once all Japanese carriers were lost, they were further restricted to operating from land bases. By 1945 the tide of war had inexorably turned in Amer­ica’s favor, and many Jills were converted and flown as kamikazes. A total of 1,133 of these formidable machines were built.

Type: Reconnaissance; Night Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 55 feet, 8 inches; length, 39 feet, 11 inches; height, 14 feet, 11 inches

Weights: empty, 10,670 pounds; gross, 18,043 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 2,260-horsepower Nakajima NK1F Sakae radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 315 miles per hour; ceiling, 30,580 feet; range, 2,330 miles

Armament: 4 x 20mm cannon

Service dates: 1943-1945

he J1N1 was a lumbering, unspectacular ma­chine but did useful service as a high-speed re­connaissance craft. It was later crash-converted into a night fighter but flew too slowly to impact B-29 raids.

The ongoing war with China convinced Japa­nese naval officials of the need for a strategic fighter capable of escorting long-range bombers. By 1938 they could point to the French Potez 63 and German Me 110 as examples of what then seemed a promising new technology. Specifications were then issued for a three-seat aircraft possessing tremendous range and firepower while retaining maneuverability equal to single-seat fighters. Kat – suji Nakamura of Nakajima conceived such a craft that first flew in 1941. Called the J1N1, it was a big twin-engine fighter with a low wing and a two-step fuselage to accommodate a pilot, observer/naviga- tor, and tailgunner. Another unique feature was the remote-controlled twin barbettes mounting four machine guns. In flight the big craft demonstrated good speed and handling, but it was in no way com­
parable to a fighter. The navy then decided to strip it of excess equipment for use as a high-speed re­connaissance craft. Thus, in 1943 the J1N1 entered service as the Gekko (Moonlight); Nakajima manu­factured 477.

The Gekko was first encountered during the later phases of the Solomon Islands campaign and failed to distinguish itself in its appointed role. The Americans, who perceived it as a fighter of some kind, bestowed the code name Irving. At length Commander Yasuna Kozono of the Rabaul garrison suggested fitting the big craft with oblique 20mm cannons to operate as a night fighter. Several air­craft were so modified and enjoyed some success against B-24 Liberators. Consequently, the majority of J1N1s were retrofitted to that standard. The fuse­lages were cut down to accommodate two crew members, and they were fitted with 20mm cannons and AI radar. Most Irvings flew in defense of the homeland but lacked the speed necessary to engage high-flying B-29s. Consequently, most spent their final days employed as kamikazes.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 37 feet, 1 inch; length, 24 feet, 8 inches; height, 10 feet, 8 inches

Weights: empty, 2,447 pounds; gross, 3,946 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 710-horsepower Nakajima Ha-1otsu radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 265 miles per hour; ceiling, 40,190 feet; range; 389 miles

Armament: 2 x 7.7mm machine guns

Service dates: 1937-1945

he lithe and comely Ki 27 was quite possibly the most maneuverable fighter plane of all time. It was built in greater quantities than any other Japa­nese prewar aircraft.

As in Italy, Japan’s predilection for maneuver­ability in fighter craft outweighed all other tactical considerations. In 1935 the Imperial Japanese Army announced specifications for its first monoplane. Of three contenders, the Nakajima design triumphed based on its startling agility. It was an all-metal, low – wing aircraft employing stressed aluminum skin and flush-riveting. It also featured streamlined, spatted landing gear and the army’s first fully enclosed canopy. The machine was also extremely compact, representing—literally—the smallest fuselage and biggest wing that could be designed around a Naka­jima Kotobuki radial engine. Flight tests revealed it was highly responsive and even more acrobatic than existing Japanese biplanes. It was also somewhat slower than comparable Western machines, a fact that maneuver-oriented Japanese pilots chose to ig­nore. In 1937 the new machine entered into service
as the Ki 27. During World War II Allied intelligence assigned the code name Nate.

No sooner had Ki 27s arrived in China than they swept the skies of outdated Chinese aircraft. In 1939 fighting also flared up between Japan and the Soviet Union along the Mongolian border. Ki 27s saw much hard fighting against Polikarpov I 15 bi­planes, usually with good results, but they were at a disadvantage when opposing faster I 16 mono­planes. To improve pilot vision, later models had a cut-down canopy. Production ceased in 1940 after a run of 3,999 machines. When the Pacific war com­menced in 1941, Ki 27s were conspicuously engaged at Malaysia, the Philippines, and Burma. They easily mastered obsolete Allied machines in those theaters but were less successful against faster Curtiss P-40s of the Flying Tigers. After 1942 Nates were with­drawn from frontline service in favor of the more modern Ki 43 Hayabusas. Most were relegated to training and home defense squadrons, but after 1945 many surviving Ki 27s were impressed into kami­kaze service.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 35 feet, 6 inches; length, 29 feet, 3 inches; height, 10 feet, 8 inches Weights: empty, 4,211 pounds; gross, 5,710 pounds Power plant: 1 x Nakajima Ha-115 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 329 miles per hour; ceiling, 36,745 feet; range, 1,988 miles Armament: 2 x 12.7mm machine guns; 551 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1941-1945

he nimble Ki 43 was the most numerous Japa­nese army fighter despite an inherently limited design potential. Rendered obsolete by modern Al­lied fighters, it remained in frontline service to the bitter end of World War II.

In 1938 the Imperial Japanese Army staff began considering a replacement for the Nakajima Ki 27 fighter and asked Nakajima to comply. As before, they sought an aircraft with peerless maneuverabil­ity, even at the expense of speed, firepower, and pilot protection. A design team under Hideo Itokawa ad­vanced plans for a craft based upon the Nakajima Ki 27, one that was thinner and possessed retractable landing gear. It was a handsome, low-wing mono­plane of extremely light construction, but it was rather low-powered. Subsequent modifications in­cluded bigger wings and combat “butterfly flaps” that greatly enhanced performance and handling quali­ties. One notable weakness was the armament that, to save weight, was restricted to two rifle-caliber ma­chine guns. Nevertheless, the Ki 43 entered the ser­vice in late 1941 as the Hayabusa (Peregrine Fal­
con), possibly the most maneuverable fighter in his­tory. Only 50 Ki 43s were on hand when the Pacific war broke out in December 1941. They nevertheless proved quite an unpleasant surprise to the unsus­pecting Allies, who christen it the Oscar.

The Ki 43 debuted during the successful Japa­nese conquest of Singapore and Burma and swept aside all the Hawker Hurricanes and Brewster Buf­faloes it encountered. They had tougher going against Curtiss P-40s of the Flying Tigers, which re­fused to engage them in a suicidal contest of slow turns. Soon it became apparent that newer and more powerful versions of the fighter were needed, so the Oscar II employed a larger engine, two 12.7mm ma­chine guns, and a three-blade propeller. These new versions retained all of the Hayabusa’s legendary maneuverability. However, by 1943 they were hope­lessly outclassed in the face of new and better Allied machines. Lacking a replacement, Oscars remained in frontline service until 1945, the most numerous Japanese army fighter of the war. Production peaked at 5,919 machines.

Dimensions: wingspan, 31 feet; length, 28 feet, 10 inches; height, 10 feet, 8 inches

Weights: empty, 4,614 pounds; gross, 6,598 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 1,520-horsepower Nakajima Ha-109 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 376 miles per hour; ceiling, 36,745; range, 1,056 miles

Armament: 2 x 12.7mm machine guns; 2 x 20mm cannon

Service dates: 1942-1945

ike the J2M Jack, the Ki 44 was one of few Japa­nese aircraft designed specifically as an inter­ceptor. It acquired limited success in that role but never enjoyed much popularity among its pilots.

In 1939 the Imperial Japanese Army staff broke with tradition by agitating for interceptor fighters that placed speed and climb over time-hon­ored qualities of maneuverability. Nakajima com­plied with a prototype somewhat based upon its Ki 43 Oscar, which made its maiden flight in August 1940. The new machine, the Ki 44, was a low-wing monoplane as before, but it possessed stubby wings and a bulbous cowling over a large Nakajima Ha-41 radial engine. It was also heavily armed, carrying two light and two heavy machine guns. Flight tests proved that the Ki 44 climbed faster and higher than any Japanese fighter extant. In 1942 limited numbers arrived at the front as the Shoki (Demon Queller), but they were coolly received by pilots accustomed to pristine dogfighters. The Shoki did, in fact, dis­play some dangerous characteristics, and extreme
maneuvers such as snap rolls and spins were forbid­den. After a while, pilots came to appreciate the speed and ruggedness of the Shoki and developed a healthy respect for the plane. The same might be said for the Allies, who christened it the Tojo after Japan’s prime minister. Interestingly, this was the only Japanese warplane identified by a non-Western code name.

The Ki 44 saw limited deployment in China and was latter based at Palembang in Sumatra for de­fense of valuable oil installations there. As newer Al­lied fighters were encountered, subsequent versions of the Tojo introduced stronger engines and greater armament. It was not until 1944, when fleets of U. S. B-29s began plastering Japanese cities, that the Tojo came into its own. Climbing quickly, they proved one of few Japanese fighters capable of engaging the giant bombers at high altitude. The Ki 44 enjoyed some success in this mode, but by 1944 production was halted in favor of the all-around better Ki 84 Hayate. A total of 1,233 were built.

Type: Medium Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 67 feet; length, 54 feet, 1 inch; height, 13 feet, 11 inches

Weights: empty, 14,396 pounds; gross, 25,133 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 1,500-horsepower Nakajima Ha-109 radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 306 miles per hour; ceiling, 30,510 feet; range, 1,243 miles

Armament: 5 x 7.7mm machine guns; 1 x 20mm cannon; up to 2,205 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1942-1945

he Ki 49 was intended as a much-needed re­placement for the aging Ki 21 Sally. However, it conferred few advantages in terms of perform­ance, and most crews actually preferred the older machine.

Deployment of the Mitsubishi Ki 21 bomber had no sooner begun in 1938 than the Japanese army began contemplating its successor. That year the army staff drafted specifications for a new air­craft featuring crew armor, self-sealing tanks, and the first-ever tail turret mounted in an army bomber. Nakajima, which had earlier lost out to Mitsubishi and ended up producing Ki 21s under license, gained firsthand knowledge about their competitor’s prod­uct and sought to improve upon it. The prototype Ki 49 first flew in August 1939 as an all-metal, mid­wing aircraft with retractable undercarriage. Its inner wing possessed a wider chord than the outer sections to accommodate self-sealing fuel tanks. The trailing edge also mounted full-length Fowler flaps to enhance takeoff and climbing characteris­tics. The craft completed test flights, and pilots
praised its handling qualities but otherwise deemed it underpowered. Nonetheless, production was au­thorized in 1941, and the first Ki 49 units were de­ployed in China. Known officially as the Donryu (Storm Dragon), it performed well enough against weak Chinese resistance but represented only mar­ginal improvement over the earlier Ki 21. It eventu­ally received the Allied code name Helen.

The Ki 49 saw extensive service along the Ja­panese Empire’s southern fringes. It debuted during the February 1942 attack on Port Darwin, Australia, and was frequently encountered over New Guinea. But despite armor and heavy armament, the Helen proved vulnerable to fighters and lost heavily. Naka­jima responded by fitting subsequent versions with bigger engines and more guns, but the type re­mained too underpowered to be effective. After the

U. S. invasion of the Philippines in 1944, where Ki 49s were sacrificed in droves, they were finally withdrawn from frontline service. Most spent the rest of their days as antisubmarine craft, transports, or kamikazes. Only 819 were built.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 36 feet, 10 inches; length, 32 feet, 6 inches; height, 11 feet, 1 inch Weights: empty, 5,864; gross, 8,576 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 1,900-horsepower Nakajima Ha-45 radial engine Performance: maximum speed, 392 miles per hour; ceiling, 34,450; range, 1,347 miles Armament: 2 x 12.7mm machine guns; 2 x 20mm cannons; up to 1,100 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1944-1945

he Ki 84 was the best Japanese army fighter of World War II to reach large-scale production. Fast, well-armed, and well-protected, it could easily outfly the formidable P-51 Mustangs and P-47 Thunderbolts.

By 1942 the attrition of experienced Japanese pi­lots forced the High Command to reconsider its phi­losophy of fighter design. By default, they concluded that maneuverability had lost ground to high perform­ance, firepower, and pilot survivability. Accordingly, specifications were issued for a new machine to re­place the aging Ki 43s in service. Nakajima subse­quently fielded the prototype Ki 84 that flew in April

1943. This was a handsome, low-wing fighter with an extremely advanced power plant, the Nakajima Ha-45 radial. To the surprise of many, the new design pos­sessed impressive qualities of speed and climb with­out sacrificing the cherished maneuverability of ear­lier machines. More important, it was also well-armed for a Japanese fighter, mounting two cannons and two heavy machine guns. The decision was made to pur­
sue production immediately, and the Ki 84 entered ser­vice as the Hayate (Gale) during the autumn of 1944. Allies gave it the code name Frank.

The first production batches of Ki 84s gave the 14th Air Force in China an extremely hard time, demonstrating marginal superiority over such stal­warts as the P-51 and P-47. As more became avail­able, they fleshed out fighter units in the Philippines, where a major invasion was anticipated. In combat the Frank was an outstanding fighter plane, strong enough to be fitted with bombs for ground-attack purposes. However, its Achilles’ heel was the Ha-45 direct-injection engine, which was complex, re­quired constant maintenance, and was frequently unreliable. Japan was also experiencing an alarming decline in quality control, for vital parts such as landing gear began inexplicably snapping off during touchdown. The Frank nonetheless gave a good ac­count of itself until war’s end and confirmed Japan’s ability to design first-rate warplanes. Production of these outstanding craft came to 3,514 machines.

Type: Dive-Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 47 feet, 2 inches; length, 33 feet, 7 inches; height, 10 feet, 11 inches

Weights: empty, 5,310 pounds; gross, 5,772 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 1,080-horsepower Mitsubishi Kinsei 44 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 242 miles per hour; ceiling, 30,050 feet; range, 970 miles

Armament: 3 x 7.7mm machine guns; 816 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1938-1945

espite its obsolete appearance, the Val was re­sponsible for sinking more Allied warships than any other Axis aircraft during World War II. It was subsequently employed in great numbers as a sui­cide plane (the dreaded kamikazes).

In 1936 the Imperial Japanese Navy decided to replace its aging Aichi D1A biplane dive – bombers with a more modern craft. A competition was held among several firms, and Aichi entered the winning design. It was the first all-metal mono­plane bomber employed by the Japanese navy and owed much to the earlier Heinkel He 70. The D3A was a radial-engine low-wing monoplane with spat­ted fix undercarriage. Like the He 70, the large wing was elliptically shaped and canted slightly up­ward past the midsection. Test flights indicated the need for enhanced stability, so production models were fitted with a lengthy dorsal fin. D3As became operational in 1938 and were popular with crews. They were robust, highly maneuverable, and could dogfight once bombs were dropped. After Decem­
ber 1941, D3As formed the front ranks of Japan’s elite carrier-based aviation squadrons.

The D3A, or Val, as it was code-named, quickly emerged as the terror of Allied shipping. Commenc­ing with the attack on Pearl Harbor, they accompa­nied the first wave, inflicting heavy damage on nu­merous U. S. battleships. D3As then ventured to the Indian Ocean, sinking the British carrier HMS Her­mes and cruisers Dorsetshire and Cornwall. They proved uncannily accurate: No less than 82 percent of bombs dropped by Vals struck their intended victims! Vals remained a potent force through the first half of 1942 before sustaining heavy losses at the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. Thereafter, Japanese naval aviation could not replace their highly trained air­crews, and efficiency waned. By 1943 an improved version, the D3A2, arrived, featuring a cleaner cowl and a spinner, but Vals suffered greatly at the hands of improved Allied fighters. Those not hacked down in combat spent their last days as kamikazes. A total of 1,495 of these impressive bombers were produced.

Dimensions: wingspan, 53 feet, 2 inches; length, 40 feet; height, 11 feet, 7 inches

Weights: empty, 6,730 pounds; gross, 10,252 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 470-horsepower Piaggio P. VII radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 227 miles per hour; ceiling, 22,956 feet; range, 1,025 miles Armament: 2 x 7.7mm machine guns; 1,764 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1938-1945

he versatile Ca 310 was progenitor of a wide-rang­ing family of reconnaissance and lighter bomber airplanes. They served Italian interests well during World War II and were widely exported abroad.

In 1936 Cesare Pallavincino of the Caproni firm unveiled his new Ca 309 Ghibli (Desert Wind) light bomber/reconnaissance aircraft. Its ancestry can be traced to the Ca 306 Borea (North Wind) of 1935, an extremely clean-lined commercial trans­port. Likes its forebear, the Ghibli was constructed of a metal-framework fuselage, wooden wings, and fabric covering. It also mounted fixed spatted land­ing gear, a glazed bombardier nose, and light arma­ment. The Regia Aeronautica (Italian air force) ac­quired 165 for policing Italian possessions overseas. Given the success of the design, Pallavincino devel­oped a more capable version, the Ca 310 Libeccio (Southwest Wind), with retractable landing gear, an extended nose, and all-around better performance. Like most Italian aircraft of the period, the Ca 310 was light and somewhat underpowered yet pos­sessed delightful flying characteristics. The Regia

Aeronautica purchased 161 of these handsome craft by 1939, with several others being exported to Nor­way, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, and Peru.

In service the Ca 310 proved to be versatile fighting machines, and they functioned as reconnais­sance planes, light bombers, and torpedo-bombers. They were widely employed throughout the Mediter­ranean theater and saw extensive service in Russia. The utility and soundness of the basic design gave rise to numerous other versions. These included the Ca 311, which introduced a glazed bombardier nose and was ordered by France and Belgium (England even contemplated their purchase). The next model, the Ca 312, had a glazed nose, heavier armament, and different engines. Germany purchased 905 of these machines as crew trainers but received only a handful before the Armistice. A final version, the Ca 314, featured inline engines, a bank of windows along the fuselage; it was intended for convoy pro­tection and naval reconnaissance. A total of 2,400 of all variants were produced, making them the most numerous Italian warplane of this period.

Type: Light Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 31 feet, 10 inches; length, 53 feet, 4 inches; height, 14 feet, 10 inches

Weights: empty, 14,317 pounds; gross, 26,455 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 7,165-pound thrust Shenyang WP6 turbojet engine

Performance: maximum speed, 740 miles per hour; ceiling, 52,000 feet; range, 404 miles

Armament: 2 x 23mm cannons; up to 4,410 pounds of bombs or rockets

Service dates: 1965-

he Q 5 is built and marketed as a relatively sim­ple and low-cost alternative to high-priced West­ern strike aircraft. Although based on outdated tech­nology, it is capable and available in large numbers.

The history of the Nanchang Q 5 dates back to 1958, when the People’s Republic of China began mass-producing copies of the Russian MiG 19 fighter. At that time, the People’s Liberation Air Force sought a dedicated ground-attack craft with better perform­ance than existing MiGs. The program was inter­rupted in 1961 by the Cultural Revolution and did not recommence until 1965. That June a prototype Q 5 flew for the first time as a highly modified airframe with overtones of the earlier craft. The biggest change was the nose section, which was highly pointed and replaced the frontal intake of the MiG 19 with ones on either side of the fuselage. Other changes included broader wings and an internal bomb bay. The tail control surfaces were apparently retained intact. Around 1970 the Q 5 entered produc­
tion and received the NATO designation FANTAN. Roughly 1,000 have been built and are deployed in three main versions. The variant associated with the People’s Liberation Navy carries additional radar and torpedoes. It is also nuclear-capable.

The Q 5 continues to be regarded as a major tactical asset within the Chinese air force judging from the sheer number of machines fielded. The FANTAN is apparently a rugged, capable ground-at­tack aircraft that can be fitted with a variety of inter­nal and external ordnance, including ground-to-air missiles and bomb clusters. It also mounts a pair of 23mm cannons for defensive purposes. Such cheap, effective machines have decided appeal for poorer Third World countries seeking to enhance their mili­tary capabilities. For this reason, Pakistan, North Korea, and Bangladesh all have imported small quantities of Q 5s. The newest version, the Q 5I, has deleted the bomb bay in favor of additional fuel and fuselage hardpoints.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 24 feet, 9 inches; length, 19 feet; height, 8 feet Weights: empty, 728 pounds; gross, 1,058 pounds Power plant: 1 x 80-horsepower Gnome rotary engine

Performance: maximum speed, 97 miles per hour; ceiling, 15,090 feet; range, 200 miles Armament: 1 x 7.7mm machine gun Service dates: 1915-1916

he Nieuport 11 was one of the most famous air­craft of World War I. Light and maneuverable, it helped end the “Fokker scourge” and restore Allied control of the air.

In response to the 1914 Gordon Bennett Air Race, Gustave Delage of Nieuport undertook design of a new and relatively small machine. This craft, which he christened the Bebe (Baby) on account of its size, was built in only four months. It featured conventional wood-and-fabric construction with highly staggered, swept-back wings. The lower wing was slightly shorter than the top, possessed only half the surface area, and was secured by distinctive vee struts. The racer was fast and demonstrated a good rate of climb with superlative flying qualities. Because World War I canceled the air race, the Avia­tion Militaire (French air service) decided to adopt the airplane as the Nieuport 11 scout. For combat purposes it sported a single Lewis machine gun on the top wing that fired above the propeller arc.

The first Nieuport 11s arrived at the front in the summer of 1915—none too soon for the hard-
pressed Allies. For six months previously the Fokker E III monoplanes had monopolized air combat over the Western Front, inflicting heavy losses. This latest French fighter could literally fly rings around its opponent and, in concert with the de Havilland DH 2 pusher, recaptured air su­premacy for the Allies. The Italians were also sin­gularly impressed by the design, and they obtained rights to manufacture it under license. By 1917 Nieuport 11s formed the mainstay of Italian fighter strength and were also widely exported to Belgium and Russia.

In 1916 Nieuport fitted the Bebe fuselage with a more powerful engine and additional armament. The ensuing Model 16 proved as popular as its pred­ecessor, launching the careers of many French aces, including Georges Guynemer and Charles Nungesser. This model was also unique in being fit­ted with small Le Prieur rockets for shooting down observation balloons. More than 600 Nieuport 16s were constructed, and they remained actively em­ployed until 1917.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 26 feet, 11 inches; length, 18 feet, 10 inches; height, 7 feet, 7 inches

Weights: empty, 705 pounds; gross, 1,179 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 110-horsepower Le Rhone rotary engine

Performance: maximum speed, 109 miles per hour; ceiling, 17,388 feet; range, 186 miles Armament: 1 x 7.7mm machine gun Service dates: 1916-1917

he Nieuport 17 was one of the most famous war­planes in aviation history. Its dogfighting abili­ties were legendary, and German aircraft designers felt obliged to incorporate many of its technical as­pects into their own craft.

In 1916 Gustave Delage sought to improve upon his existing Nieuport 16 to counteract a ten­dency toward nose-heaviness and structural failures in the lower wing. The result was a strengthened, lengthened design: the classic Nieuport 17. It fea­tured additional wing area, cleaned-up lines, and a reinforced lower wing. A fully synchronized Vickers machine gun, installed in front of the pilot’s posi­tion, also replaced the wing-mounted Lewis weapon. Consequently, the new craft displayed all the agility of older models with none of their vices.

The Nieuport 17 appeared at the front in the summer of 1916, just as the struggle against the Fokker E III monoplanes was climaxing. As with earlier models, it had little difficulty dispatching nu­merous German adversaries. It also was one of the few Allied aircraft that could hold its own against
the new-model Albatros and Halberstadt D I fighters appearing that fall. Being propelled by a rotary en­gine, which exerted great torque forces while spin­ning inside the cowling, Nieuports easily outturned their faster opponents. The Italians were impressed by this compact dervish and obtained a license to manufacture it on their own. The type was also ex­ported abroad to Belgium and Russia with similar results. Moreover, it formed the strength of the American volunteer squadron, the famous Lafayette Escadrille.

Few aircraft are so closely associated with a stable of aces as this legendary Nieuport design. It assisted the careers of such flying legends as Georges Guynemer, Rene Fonck, and Jean Navarre in France, Italy’s Francesco Baracca, Edward Man – nock of Great Britain, and William “Billy” Bishop of Canada. The great British ace Albert Ball was al­legedly so attached to his Nieuport that he refused to trade it when ordered to do so! This superlative fighter plane remained in frontline service until 1917 before being superceded by the SPAD VII.

Dimensions: wingspan, 28 feet, 8 inches; length, 21 feet; height, 8 feet, 2 inches

Weights: empty, 1,047 pounds; gross, 1,625 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 160-horsepower Gnome Monosoupape rotary engine

Performance: maximum speed, 122 miles per hour; ceiling, 17,000 feet; range, 155 miles

Armament: 2 x.303-caliber machine guns

Service dates: 1918

he Nieuport 28 was among the most elegant fighters of World War I but inferior to earlier models. It nonetheless gained renown as the first combat aircraft piloted by newly-arrived Americans.

The appearance of new German fighters in the summer of 1917 prompted Gustave Delage to radi­cally overhaul the design philosophy of his aging Nieuport scouts. A new craft, designated the Nieu – port 28, dispensed with the familiar sesquiplane ap­proach (with one wing longer than the other) and adopted wings of equal length. Moreover, in con­trast to the square-tipped wings anchored by vee struts of earlier versions, the new craft sported rounded tips and two-bay, conventional strutting. The graceful fuselage was also circular in cross-sec­tion, with a highly streamlined metal cowling. The resulting craft exhibited delightfully stylish lines and proved highly maneuverable with a good rate of climb. Unfortunately, it was also structurally weak, as the leading edge tended to break up during dives. This could lead to the entire upper wing collaps­ing—with fatal results. In light of additional prob­
lems with the 160-horsepower Gnome Monosou – pape rotary engine, the Aviation Militaire (French air service) decided to purchase the more rugged SPAD VII instead.

The Nieuport 28 might have lapsed into obscu­rity save for developments overseas. In 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and began dispatching the American Expeditionary Force to France. It arrived in the summer and fall of that year wholly destitute of aircraft and eager to purchase modern designs. Because the Nieuport 28 was the only available fighter at the time, 297 of these rejected machines outfitted the 27th, 94th, 95th, and 147th Aero Squadrons in the spring of 1918. Both Douglas Campbell, the first American ace, and Eddie Rickenbacker, the highest-scoring pilot, cut their teeth in these fragile fighters. Other noted fliers such as Raoul Lufbery and Quinten Roo­sevelt were killed flying them. After a service life of several months, the unpopular Nieuports were fi­nally replaced by SPAD XIIIs. A handful lingered on as racing craft well into the 1920s.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 31 feet, 10 inches; length, 21 feet, 3 inches; height, 8 feet, 5 inches Weights: empty, 1,675 pounds; gross, 2,535 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 300-horsepower Hispano-Suiza 8Fb water-cooled in-line engine Performance: maximum speed, 146 miles per hour; ceiling, 27,885 feet; range, 360 miles Armament: 2 x 7.7mm machine guns Service dates: 1922-1933

oo late to serve in World War I, the Ni-D 29 was one of the best fighters of the 1920s. It served many years in the air forces of France, Italy, Bel­gium, and Japan.

In 1918 Gustave Delage undertook design of a fighter to replace his less-than-successful Nieuport 28. In doing so he completely forsook the long-stand­ing design norms of the Nieuport company. His new Ni-D 29 differed greatly from previous machines by mounting an in-line, not rotary, engine. It also dis­pensed with traditional vee struts associated with that company. The new craft was a two-bay biplane of conventional wood-and-canvas design. The wings were of equal length, slightly staggered, and both possessed ailerons. The fuselage was of streamlined monocoque construction with a close-fitting metal cowl over the engine. This necessitated twin radia­tors to be suspended below the engine and between the landing struts. Delage’s latest creation first flew in June 1918, exhibiting high speed and great maneu­verability. The second prototype even established a
world’s altitude record of 29,931 feet in 1919. Having missed World War I, the Ni-D 29 entered production in 1921, with 250 units acquired by fighter squadrons. The craft proved immediately successful, and soon it was redesigned with longer wings and no upper ailerons. This version, the Ni-D 29 C.1, remained in frontline service until 1928.

The Ni-D 29 subsequently became one of the most important and numerous fighter aircraft of the postwar period. It was widely exported abroad, serving with the air forces of Belgium, Sweden, Ar­gentina, and Spain; it was also built under license by Italy and Japan. The Japanese firm Nakajima sup­plied army air force units with no less than 608 ma­chines (designated Ko 4), which remained in service until 1933. These aircraft saw extensive use during the Manchurian campaign, while French and Span­ish Nieuports fought against rebels throughout North Africa. In 1927 a mock dogfight of Ni-D 29s was even staged over Paris between a French pilot and Charles Lindbergh!

Dimensions: wingspan (swept) 28 feet; length, 61 feet, 3 inches; height, 19 feet, 6 inches Weights: empty, 31,970 pounds; gross, 61,700 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 8,650-pound thrust Turbo-Union RB.199-34R Mk 104 turbofans Performance: maximum speed, 921 miles per hour; ceiling, 50,000 feet; range, 863 miles Armament: 2 x 27mm cannons; up to 19,841 pounds of rockets, bombs, or gunpods Service dates: 1980-

he Tornado is possibly the most flexible multi­mission aircraft in history. Designed as a strike aircraft, it can also perform air-defense, antiship­ping, and reconnaissance missions with ease.

In the late 1960s Germany, Italy, and Great Britain joined hands to design a basic ground-attack aircraft that would be built and deployed by all three nations. The new machine would have to operate from short runways, deliver ordnance with pinpoint accuracy, and operate in any weather conditions. It would also be optimized for high-speed/low-level operations that are highly taxing to both crew and airframe alike. After extensive studies, the proto­type Panavia Tornado IDS was flown in 1974. It was a compact yet highly complicated aircraft, the first European production design to employ variable – geometry wings. The wings are extremely compli­cated and designed around a number of high-lift technologies that enable it to become airborne quickly. The craft is characterized by a somewhat short, pointed nose, a long canopy seating two crew members, and a very tall stabilizer. Internally, the

Tornado utilizes advanced fly-by-wire technology, as well as highly sophisticated navigation/attack radar that combines search, ground-mapping, and terrain­following capabilities. Around 900 Tornados have been built and acquired by the manufacturing na­tions since 1980. Several dozen have also been ex­ported to Saudi Arabia.

In 1976 Great Britain wanted to develop an air – defense version on its own accord to replace the aging inventory of English Electric Lightnings and McDonnell-Douglas Phantoms. It desired a fast, flexi­ble interceptor to protect NATO’s northern and west­ern approaches. The new Tornado ADV rolled out in 1976 and is distinguished from the IDS variant by a lengthened nose. It houses the advanced Foxhound radar system, which can track up to 20 targets simul­taneously at ranges up to 100 miles. The Royal Air Force currently operates 144 Tornado ADVs, and sev­eral have been exported to Saudi Arabia. Both ver­sions saw active duty in the 1991 Gulf War and sus­tained the heaviest losses of any Allied type. They will continue to serve well into the twenty-first century.

Type: Medium Bomber; Dive-Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 56 feet, 3 inches; length, 41 feet, 6 inches; height, 11 feet, 6 inches Weights: empty, 12,952 pounds; gross, 18,726 pounds Power plant: 2 x 1,260-horsepower M-105PF liquid-cooled in-line engines Performance: maximum speed, 360 miles per hour; ceiling, 28,870 feet; range, 721 miles Armament: 2 x 7.62mm machine guns; 3 x 12.7mm machine guns; 6,614 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1940-1945

he Pe 2 was Russia’s outstanding tactical bomber of World War II and distinguished itself throughout that conflict. Even when fully loaded, it flew so fast that escorting fighters were hard – pressed to keep up.

In 1938 a design bureau under Vladimir Petlyakov responded to Soviet specifications for a high-altitude fighter with the VI 100. It was an all­metal, twin-engine machine with two rudders and streamlined engine nacelles. A crew of three sat in a spacious cockpit toward the front of the fuselage. In designing the VI 100, careful consideration was given to weight and drag reduction, so bulky radia­tors were located along the wings while the fuselage employed the smallest possible cross-section. Flight-testing commenced in 1939 with excellent re­sults, but the government changed the role of the craft to high-level bombing. When this proved im­practical due to inaccuracy, dive-bombing was sub­stituted, and the plane was fitted with dive brakes. Petlyakov’s design proved successful in this mode, and in 1940 it entered service as the Pe 2.

When war with Germany commenced in June 1941, Pe 2s distinguished themselves in hard – pressed attacks and flew faster than pursuing Bf 109E fighters. Pe 2s were so speedy that they fre­quently throttled back to allow Lend-Lease Hawker Hurricane escort fighters to keep up. The Pe 2 was also quite strong and could sustain major damage with few ill effects. Successive modifications and stronger engines improved performance and kept them slightly beyond the reach of the newer Bf 109F/Gs. The biggest modifications occurred in 1943, when the wing profile was modified, oil-cooler intakes were reshaped, and bomb mounts received streamlined fairings. The net result was a 25 percent increase in speed. Features to enhance crew sur­vival were also incorporated, including a novel cold – gas bleeding system to suppress fires in the fuel tanks. No less than 11,400 of these impressive ma­chines were constructed. In concert with the smaller Ilyushin Il 2, they were significant contribu­tors to the final Russian victory.

Dimensions: wingspan, 128 feet, 3 inches; length, 77 feet, 4 inches; height, 20 feet, 4 inches

Weights: empty, 40,609 pounds; gross, 79,366 pounds

Power plant: 4 x 1,700-horsepower Shvetsov Ash-82FN radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 280 miles per hour; ceiling, 29,525 feet; range, 2,920 miles

Armament: 2 x 7.62mm machine guns; 2 x 12.7mm machine guns; 8,818 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1940-1950

he Pe 8 was an excellent heavy bomber, but the Soviet High Command had little regard for strategic bombing. Despite great range and a good payload, this potentially useful weapon remained a minor player in a very big war.

In 1934 the Soviet government announced specifications for a fast long-range bomber to re­place the Tupolev TB 3s in service. It devolved upon the Tupolev design bureau to create such a craft, al­though under the aegis of Vladimir Petlyakov. The new machine, initially designated TB 7, first flew in December 1936 as an all-metal, midwing monoplane with power turrets and retractable landing gear. A unique feature was the peculiarly thick wings; these allowed crew members to crawl to the inboard en­gine nacelles and man rear-firing machine guns. Ini­tial flights were also impressive, as the TB 7 reached

30,0 feet at speeds exceeding the latest German fighters. They entered production in 1937, but only 79 of these excellent machines were constructed.

This was because the Soviet High Command wanted great numbers of smaller two-engine tactical bombers to operate at low altitude in support of Red Army units. Thus, Soviet long-range bombardment aviation took a permanent backseat to battlefield considerations.

During the initial stages of World War II, the big Pe 8s were actively employed, but seldom in the ca­pacity for which they were designed. On the night of August 11, 1941, several managed to bomb Berlin, and subsequent raids were conducted deep behind German lines. But compared to British and U. S. ef­forts, these were mere pinpricks. However, in May 1942 a Pe 8 made headlines when it flew by stages from Moscow to Washington, D. C., bearing Prime Minister V. M. Molotov. This successful round-trip flight, totaling over 11,000 miles, was a considerable achievement and eloquent testimony to the sound­ness of Petlyakov’s design. After the war several Pe 8s remained employed as engine testbeds until 1950.

Type: Glider; Transport

Dimensions: wingspan, 88 feet; length, 67 feet; height, 19 feet, 6 inches Weights: empty, 7,500 pounds; gross, 15,250 pounds Power plant: none

Performance: maximum speed, 127 miles per hour Armament: none Service dates: 1942-1945

he Horsa was the most numerous and widely used British assault glider of World War II. It functioned well at Sicily and Normandy and at one point lifted an entire airborne division across the Rhine.

The striking success of German glider troops in 1940 dismayed British authorities, so that year the Air Ministry issued Specification X.26/40 calling for creation of similar forces. The Airspeed company re­sponded with a prototype called the AS.51 Horsa (named after an ancient Saxon king) in September

1941. This was a high-wing monoplane with tricycle landing gear and provisions for 25 troops. The Horsa was built entirely of wood and was canvas-covered, so it creaked loudly while flying. It was also rela­tively sophisticated, possessing ailerons, split trailing edge flaps, and underwing dive brakes powered by compressed air. The craft was towed aloft by a twin- engine bomber and affixed by a rope fastened to the nose and nosewheel strut. Once airborne, the large wheeled gear were jettisoned; the glider landed on a large retractable skid. It handled well in the air, even
when crammed with men and supplies, and could touch down in relatively small areas. The Horsa en­tered production in 1941 and was initially used for clandestine operations in Norway. It witnessed its large-scale baptism of fire in July 1943, when 30 were successfully launched over Sicily.

In 1941 the Air Ministry decided to develop a specialized freight-carrying version of the Horsa, the AS.58, so that airborne forces could ferry greater supplies to the drop zone. It was similar to the previ­ous version but also featured twin nosewheels and a hinged nose section to ease unloading. The entire rear section could also be jettisoned for that pur­pose. Both models were present during the massive airborne assault over Normandy on June 6, 1944. Horsas carried select detachments of special forces that captured and held several strategic bridges. In March 1945 440 Horsas transported the entire 6th Airborne Division in another large movement across the Rhine River. The U. S. Army also employed sev­eral hundred of these useful craft. A total of 3,655 were built.

О Airspeed Oxford

Type: Trainer

Dimensions: wingspan, 53 feet, 4 inches; length, 34 feet, 6 inches; height, 11 feet, 1 inch Weights: empty, 5,670 pounds; gross, 8,000 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 370-horsepower Armstrong-Siddeley Cheetah radial engines Performance: maximum speed, 188 miles per hour; ceiling, 19,500 feet; range, 550 miles Armament: 1 x.303-caliber machine gun Service dates: 1937-1954

he beloved “Ox-box” was one of the unsung he­roes of World War II. Built in huge numbers, it trained thousands of British and Commonwealth air­men in the nuances of flying, gunnery, navigation, and bombardment.

In 1936 the British Air Ministry issued, as part of the Royal Air Force expansion program, Specification

T.23/36 to obtain its first twin-engine training air­plane. This was essential because biplane technology was being superceded by newer monoplanes that were faster and more demanding to fly. It so hap­pened that Airspeed was then marketing a twin-en­gine passenger craft called the Envoy, which could be easily modified for instructional purposes. The Air Ministry agreed and in 1937 submitted an order for 137 aircraft as the Oxford. The new craft was an all­wood, low-wing monoplane with retractable landing gear and attractive lines. The Mk I version was also fitted with a single-gun power turret for gunnery prac­tice. In service the Oxford exhibited easy handling, but it proved tricky for novices to land and required
vigilance. This characteristic was considered more useful than not, for it prepared students for the less – forgiving aircraft they would eventually fly. When World War II commenced in September 1939, the RAF counted 400 Oxford Is in its training inventory.

The Oxford eventually became an essential component of the Commonwealth Air Training Scheme. By 1945 no less than 8,751 “Ox-boxes” had been built, and they were operated in large numbers by Great Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Rhodesia. As time passed, this ver­satile trainer’s regimen was expanded to include bombardier, radio-operator, and navigation training. Literally thousands of Allied crewmen gained their wings or specializations while flying the Oxford. Many others were employed for ambulance, liaison, and communications purposes. After the war, many surplus Oxfords transferred over to the civilian sec­tor. The RAF did not relinquish its last “Ox-box” until 1954, and this stately machine stands as one of the most important military trainers in aviation history.

Type: Trainer; Light Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 34 feet, 9 inches; length, 41 feet; height, 13 feet, 11 inches

Weights: empty, 7,716 pounds; gross, 13,889 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 4,300-pound thrust Garrett TFE731 turbofan engine

Performance: maximum speed, 501 miles per hour; ceiling, 42,00 feet; range, 322 miles

Armament: none, or up to 4,960 pounds of gunpods, bombs, or rockets

Service dates: 1981-

he Aviojet is Spain’s first indigenously designed and constructed jet aircraft. Small, underpow­ered, and unassuming, it nevertheless attracts buy­ers from South America and the Middle East.

Construcciones Aeronauticas SA (CASA) was founded in 1923 and is one of Europe’s oldest air­plane manufacturers. For many years it built foreign designs under license; in 1972 the firm absorbed His – pano Aviacion, a major competitor. Thus augmented, CASA was well positioned to fulfill a 1975 Spanish air force requirement for a new jet trainer to replace their outdated HA 200 Saettas. The main design em­phasis was on simplicity and economy, not high per­formance. Yet the new machine also had to be capa­ble of light strike missions. Faced with such varied specifications, CASA solicited technical advice from abroad. The U. S. firm Northrop was contracted to help design the wing and engine inlets, and Ger­many’s MBB assisted with the rear fuselage and tail section. The prototype C 101 performed its maiden flight in June 1978 as a low-wing monoplane with unswept wings. To reduce costs, it employs modular
construction, and the fuselage contains ample space capable of being retrofitted with different avionic sys­tems as needed. The C 101 is powered by a commer­cial turbofan engine adapted for military use, which combines relatively good power with excellent fuel economy. A two-man crew is housed under a spa­cious canopy, with staggered seating to allow instruc­tors a better view. For military applications a built-in bomb bay exists on the underside, and the wing also sports six pylons capable of holding weapons.

The Aviojet, although somewhat underpow­ered next to comparable French, British, and Italian machines, still possesses delightful characteristics at very affordable prices. As anticipated, the Spanish air force contracted for 88 machines under the des­ignation Mirlo (Blackbird). Several of these were subsequently assigned to the national acrobatic squadron, Team Aguila. Such low-cost and good performance induced Chile, Honduras, and Jordan to place orders for trainers and attack craft. A dedi­cated attack version, the C 101DD, is currently under development.

Type: Reconnaissance; Trainer

Dimensions: wingspan, 43 feet; length, 22 feet; height, 8 feet, 6 inches Weights: empty, 959 pounds; gross, 1,565 pounds Power plant: 1 x 80-horsepower Le Rhone rotary engine

Performance: maximum speed, 67 miles per hour; ceiling, 13,000 feet; range, 240 miles Armament: none Service dates: 1914-1918

espite its obsolete appearance, the Caudron G III was a popular French aircraft from the early days of World War I. Throughout its lengthy ca­reer it trained thousands of allied pilots.

The Caudron brothers, Gaston and Rene, were renowned as airplane builders long before the onset of hostilities in August 1914. Their first military de­sign, the G III, was a development of an earlier civil­ian craft, the N.40, which was itself a frequent star at air shows across Europe. This Caudron machine was unique in being one of the few twin-boomed aircraft of its day. The crew of two sat in a short nacelle sus­pended between the two wings. To the rear, four booms supported a system of twin rudders; the craft was steered by wing-warping techniques. Despite its odd appearance, the G III was strongly built and pos­sessed excellent climbing abilities. The French air force had only one squadron of G IIIs deployed when war broke out, but their excellent performance re­sulted in orders for more. In a display of patriotism and to facilitate rapid production, Caudron allowed other firms to construct the GIII without a license.

The Caudron’s climbing and handling made it valuable as a reconnaissance and artillery-spot­ting airplane. However, it was relatively slow and completely unarmed, so the advent of improved German fighters terminated its frontline useful­ness by 1916. The G IIIs then rendered equally useful service as a trainer, for novice pilots appre­ciated its gentle and predicable qualities. They were also widely exported abroad, seeing service in the air forces of Italy, Great Britain, Belgium, and Russia. It gained considerable renown throughout 1917-1918, when G IIIs trained virtu­ally every pilot attached to the American Expedi­tionary Force. Caudron and other companies ulti­mately assembled 2,450 of the ubiquitous G IIIs. In 1919 one plucky craft gained special notoriety in civilian hands when aviatrix Adrienne Bolland flew it over the Andes Mountains. That same year former French ace Jules Verdrines demonstrated its superb handling by successfully landing on the roof of the Galeries Lafayette department store in Paris!

Type: Reconnaissance; Light Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 56 feet, 5 inches; length, 23 feet, 7 inches; height, 8 feet, 6 inches Weights: empty, 1,102 pounds; gross, 2,923 pounds Power plant: 2 x 80-horsepower Le Rhone rotary engines

Performance: maximum speed, 82 miles per hour; ceiling, 14,108 feet; range, 250 miles Armament: 2 x 7.7mm machine guns; 220 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1915-1918

he Caudron G IV was the first twin-engine air­craft deployed by Allied air units in World War I. Like its predecessor, it was fast-climbing, easy to fly, and completely reliable.

The Caudron G III was a well-liked aircraft, but by 1915 it had reached the limits of development. The Aviation Militaire (French air service) therefore deter­mined to capitalize on the successful design by au­thorizing an improved, scaled-up version. When the prototype GIV appeared in March 1915, it was similar to but much larger than its forebear. The new machine possessed a larger wingspan and was powered by two cowled engines suspended between the wings. Their placement, in close proximity to the crew nacelle, was fortunate, for it made the craft more easily handled in case of an engine failure. Like the G III, the G IV also had four booms stretching backward to the tail sec­tion, although the rudders had been increased to four. It was also armed with a machine gun in the forward nacelle, as well as one pointed backward over the top
wing. Following successful test flights, the new Cau­dron entered French service in November 1915 and ul­timately equipped 38 squadrons.

In the field, the G IV displayed many fine quali­ties reminiscent of the earlier craft. Delightful to fly, it climbed speedily and was easily maintained. As the Allies’ first twin-engine bomber, it was sent in massed formations to German targets as distant as the Rhineland. Unfortunately, the slow, lightly armed G IVs were easy prey for newer and more heavily armed German fighters. Having sustained heavy losses, most G IVs were withdrawn from frontline service by August 1916. They continued in British and Russian service much longer, however, and Italians prized the awkward-looking craft for its quick climbing ability, an essential trait when flying in heavily mountainous terrain. Toward the end of the war, G IVs were employed as trainers by the newly arrived Americans, who also praised its docil­ity. A total of 1,358 were built.

Dimensions: 58 feet, 9 inches; length, 36 feet, 9 inches; height, 9 feet, 2 inches

Weights: empty, 3,130 pounds; gross, 4,773 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 215-horsepower Hispano-Suiza liquid-cooled engines

Performance: maximum speed, 114 miles per hour; ceiling, 19,520 feet; range, 350 miles

Armament: 5 x 7.7mm machine guns

Service dates: 1918-1922

big, impressive machine, the R 11 was the most successful escort fighter of World War I. In that role it shot down scores of German fighters while protecting vulnerable French bombers.

By 1917 the Aviation Militaire (French air ser­vice) required a new, three-seat aircraft for extended reconnaissance usage. The Caudron company de­cided to update its older R 4 bomber with a smaller, lighter, more heavily armed machine. Consequently, the prototype R 11 emerged in March 1917 as a sleek, imposing craft. It displayed a more pointed nose than its predecessor, along with two bays of wing braces and an elongated vertical stabilizer. The fuselage was also oval-shaped in cross-section, with provisions for a single pilot and forward and rear gunners. As an added measure of safety, the R 11 was outfitted with dual controls: If a pilot were killed or wounded, the rear gunner could land it safely.

The big craft exhibited sprightly performance during testing, and the decision was made to enter production. Troubles with the Hispano-Suiza geared
motors greatly slowed their acquisition, and it was not until the spring of 1918 that R 11s were acquired in quantity. At that time the French headquarters Service Aeronautique had modified the R 11’s role from reconnaissance to escort fighter. The French reasoned that because the aircraft was fast and heavily armed, it provided a more stable gunnery platform compared to single-engine fighters. The R 11 consequently received the construction priori­ties usually reserved only for two other noted stal­warts, the Breguet 14 and the Salmson 2A2.

By the summer and fall of 1918, the big R 11s dutifully conducted massed formations of Breguet 14 bombers to and from targets in the Rhineland. Their heavy firepower accounted for the loss of many German fighters and saved several hundred French lives. Had the war continued another year, R 11s would have become one of the most import weapons in the French arsenal. Construction ended at 500 units, and the big fighters were retained in service until being declared obsolete in 1922.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 30 feet, 10 inches; length, 22 feet, 9 inches; height, 8 feet, 9 inches Weights: empty, 1,653 pounds; gross, 2,056 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 180-horsepower Mercedes D III liquid-cooled in-line engine Performance: maximum speed, 103 miles per hour; ceiling, 17,060 feet; range, 217 miles Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machine guns Service dates: 1917-1918

he sleek-looking Pfalz D Ills were among the most streamlined fighters to appear in World War I. Its dogfighting abilities were marginally infe­rior to contemporary Fokkers and Albatroses, but as a balloon-buster it had no peer.

Pfalz Flugzeug-Werke of Bavaria spent the first three years of World War I building Roland D-series fighters and other craft under license. By 1917 chief engineer Rudolph Gehringer advanced plans for a new fighter possessing unmistakably sharklike lines. This new craft, the Pfalz D III, first flew in June of that year. It possessed a plywood-covered mono – coque fuselage with a sharply pointed profile. The wings were slightly staggered with single-bay struts ending in raked, pointed wingtips and mounted as close to the fuselage as possible to afford good all­around view. The lower wing was somewhat shorter than the top and featured cutouts near the roots for enhanced downward vision. The German air service greatly needed a new fighter, so construction of the D III commenced in the summer of 1917.

For all its promise, the Pfalz D III proved something of a bust in combat. Good looks notwith­standing, the plane climbed more slowly and was judged inferior in maneuverability to the contempo­rary Albatros and Fokker triplane fighters then in service. Yet the Pfalz was fast in level flight, pos­sessed pleasant handling characteristics, and could outdive any German fighter extant. This trait, cou­pled with robust construction, made it ideal for the dangerous business of balloon-busting. Observation balloons at this time were heavily defended by ar­tillery batteries below and were surrounded by con­stant fighter patrols. Thus, they were extremely diffi­cult targets to bring down. The great strength of the Pfalz allowed it to dive upon its quarry, absorb con­siderable damage, and return home safely. At length, the D IIIa version was introduced, which featured minor aerodynamic refinements, including rounder wingtips and bigger tail surfaces. Nearly 600 of both models were completed, and at least 350 were in service by war’s end.

Dimensions: wingspan, 29 feet, 6 inches; length, 20 feet, 10 inches; height, 8 feet, 10 inches Weights: empty, 1,579 pounds; gross, 1,984 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 160-horsepower Mercedes D Ilia liquid-cooled in-line engine Performance: maximum speed, 106 miles per hour; ceiling, 18,500 feet; range, 200 miles Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machine guns Service dates: 1918

he Pfalz D XII was among the very last German fighters to appear in World War I. It was an ex­cellent machine but always operated in the shadow of Fokker’s superb D VII.

The lackluster performance of the earlier D III fighters induced the Pfalz company to design a bet­ter high-performance aircraft as a replacement. Sev­eral intermediary prototypes were built and flown, but it was not until the Aldershof fighter trials of June 1918 that the Pfalz D XII made its unheralded appearance. The new craft showed striking resem­blance to the famous Fokker D VII already in ser­vice, but it was a completely original design. Like the earlier D III, it possessed a plywood monocoque fuselage that tapered rearward to a knife’s edge. A 160-horsepower Mercedes engine was housed in a tight-fitting cowl section, with the top exposed and a radiator in front. The two-bay wings were of unequal length and heavily braced by wiring, while the top wing sported ailerons that flared out past the wingtips. But, given the applause surrounding Fok-
ker’s marvel, skeptics assumed that a few select bribes by the Bavarian government accounted for the Pfalz’s appearance. Nonetheless, several veteran pilots test-flew the craft and praised its many quali­ties. The government then decided to undertake pro­duction of the little-known craft to supplement the Fokkers, then in short supply.

In fact, the D XII proved an excellent design, if marginally inferior to its more famous stablemate. It was fast, immensely strong, and could outdive the D VII with complete safety. However, most pilots had their hearts set upon flying Fokkers, and when the Pfalz machine appeared at aerodromes in Sep­tember 1918 pilots viewed it with disappointment and suspicion. Familiarization flights soon con­vinced them otherwise, and in combat it proved one of few German types able to withstand the Sopwith Camel and the SPAD XIII. The much-neglected fighter fought with distinction until the Armistice of November 1918. An estimated 200 Pfalz D XIIs had been constructed.

Type: Reconnaissance

Dimensions: wingspan, 36 feet, 1 inch; length, 24 feet, 8 inches; height, 9 feet, 8 inches

Weights: empty, 1,808 pounds; gross, 2,734 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 230-horsepower Hiero liquid-cooled engine

Performance: maximum speed, 112 miles per hour; ceiling, 17,715 feet; range, 350 miles Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machines guns; 110 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1918-1935

he ugly, angular Phonix C I was unquestionably the best Austrian two-seater of World War I. After a brief combat life, it capably served the Swedish air force for an additional two decades.

The advent of newer, more deadly Allied fight­ers toward the closing months of World War I in­duced Austria to seek better aircraft and replace its aging fleet of Hansa-Brandenburgs and Lohners. In the spring of 1917 the Phonix Flugzeug-Werke firm entered into competition with a rival firm, Ufag, to design the new craft. Both prototypes were based upon the Hansa-Brandenberg C I, a German two – seater of the “star-strutter” variety. When the Phonix machine emerged, it possessed unequal, positive – staggered wings with an unusual system of dual in­terplane vee struts. The fuselage was also very deep and placed close to the upper wing. This gave the pilot almost unrestricted frontal and upward view. Another distinctive feature was the very small rud­der, which granted the gunner a near-perfect field of fire. The new craft, christened the Phonix C I, was
initially underpowered but demonstrated many use­ful qualities. Production commenced in the spring of 1918 following a prolonged gestation of nearly a year.

In combat, the Phonix C I proved itself one of the best warplanes of its class. Once retrofitted with a powerful, 230-horsepower motor, it exhibited ex­cellent climbing and turning capabilities. In fact, C Is flew so well that they were easily mistaken for the single-seat Phonix D I fighter—often with fatal re­sults. The noted Italian ace Francesco Baracca met his death at the hands of a C I tailgunner, as did scores of other unsuspecting Allied pilots. It was Austria’s fate that this fine machine served only a few months before the Armistice concluded in No­vember 1918. A total of 110 were built.

After the war, the C I’s excellent reputation came to the attention of the newly founded Swedish air force. Between 1920 and 1932, an additional 32 C Is, known as Dronts, were built, remaining ac­tively employed until 1935.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 32 feet, 2 inches; length, 21 feet, 9 inches; height, 9 feet, 5 inches

Weights: empty, 1,510 pounds; gross, 2,097 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 230-horsepower Hiero liquid-cooled engine

Performance: maximum speed, 117 miles per hour; ceiling, 22,310 feet; range, 217 miles Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machine guns Service dates: 1918-1933

he Phonix D I was arguably the best Austrian fighter of World War I. Slow-climbing and hard to handle, it was fast in level flight, maneuverable, and served the Swedish air force for several years.

Previously, the Phonix Flugzeug-Werke firm had been contracted to produce the Hansa-Brandenburg DI fighter under license. When it became apparent by 1917 that the infamous Star-strutter could not be de­veloped further, the company embarked on a new air­craft. The design eventually incorporated a fuselage similar to the D I and also sported wings of unequal span that ended in rounded wingtips and swept-back leading edges. It was also considerably more power­ful than the earlier machine, being propelled by a 200- horsepower Hiero engine. One interesting innovation was locating the armament within the engine cowl­ing. This enhanced streamlining but placed the guns beyond the pilot’s reach if they jammed. The resulting craft was faster in level flight but somewhat unstable and slow-climbing. The Austrian government, hard – pressed on all fronts, nonetheless ordered the new craft into immediate production. In the spring of 1918
it entered service as the Phonix D I and was deployed with army and navy units.

The new machine was far from perfect, but it represented a dramatic improvement over the earlier Star-strutter. In capable hands the D I proved more than a match for the Italian Hanriots and SPADs. To enhance maneuverability, the new D II model intro­duced balanced elevators and other refinements, but the craft was judged too stable for violent acrobatics. On this basis, a few machines were fitted with cam­eras to pioneer single-seat high-speed reconnais­sance work. Phonix then concocted the D III model shortly before hostilities concluded. It featured a more powerful engine and ailerons on all four wings, which greatly improved all-around maneuverability. The war ended before the D III could be deployed, but 158 examples of all versions were delivered.

After the war, Sweden expressed interest in obtaining several copies of the D III along with man­ufacturing rights. Seventeen were ultimately con­structed, and they rendered useful service until 1933.

Type: Heavy Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 104 feet, 11 inches; length, 73 feet, 1 inch; height, 19 feet, 8 inches

Weights: empty, 38,195 pounds; gross, 65,885 pounds

Power plant: 4 x 1,500-horsepower Piaggio P. XII RC35 radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 267 miles per hour; ceiling, 27,890 feet; range, 2,187 miles

Armament: 8 x 12.7mm machine guns; up to 7,716 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1942-1943

he Piaggio P 108B was the only four-engine strategic bomber employed by Italian forces in World War II. It enjoyed performance comparable to early B-17s but was never produced in great quantity.

Italian aviation had demonstrated talent for strategic bombing, a fact clearly established during World War I. However, throughout the 1930s and until the beginning of World War II, the bulk of dictator Benito Mussolini’s bombardment assets were tied up in short-ranged twin-engine aircraft. In 1939 designer Giovanni Casiraghi attempted a more modern solu­tion when he conceived the Piaggio P 108B (Bom – bardiere). This was an ultramodern, all-metal, four – engine aircraft similar to the famous Boeing B-17, and it was constructed for identical purposes. The P 108B housed a crew of seven and could carry a good bomb load for respectable distances. It was also heavily armed, mounting no less than eight 12.7mm machine guns. Four weapons were placed at various fuselage points, but the remaining four were ingeniously mounted in two remote-controlled barbettes atop the
outboard engines. Sighted and fired by gunners peer­ing through transparent domes, this system antici­pated by several years the system that would be uti­lized in Boeing B-29 Superfortresses. Despite its size, the big craft handled well in the air; it entered produc­tion in 1940. Nearly two years lapsed before the P 108B was available in squadron strength, and by that time Axis fortunes had waned considerably.

In service the P 108B proved rugged and de­pendable, especially when contrasted with Ger­many’s ill-fated He 177 Greif. It conducted several nighttime raids against Gibraltar, being fitted with flame dampeners on the exhausts. The type also per­formed useful service in North Africa and Russia until the Italian surrender of 1943. Beforehand, Piag – gio had also been working on a transport version of the craft, the P 108C, which featured a completely redesigned fuselage for seating 56 fully armed troops. Only 12 were built, and these were seized and used by the Luftwaffe. A total of 182 of all types were constructed.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 32 feet, 9 inches; length, 20 feet, 3 inches; height, 9 feet, 2 inches Weights: empty, 3,201 pounds; gross, 4,652 pounds Power plant: 1 x 1,000-horsepower M-62 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 276 miles per hour; ceiling, 35,105 feet; range, 292 miles Armament: 4 x 7.62mm machine guns; up to 441 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1934-1943

he Chaika (Gull) was among the fastest and most maneuverable biplanes ever built. It per­formed active duty from Spain to Mongolia before taking heavy losses in World War II.

In 1934 the gifted Soviet designer Nikolai Po­likarpov, recently released from the gulag, updated his successful I 5 fighter into an even more effective craft. The new I 15 shared some commonality with its predecessor, being constructed of wooden wings, steel tubing, and fabric covering. It differed, however, in possessing an inverted gull wing that melded into the fuselage near the roots. Despite a stubby appearance, the I 15 was rugged, relatively fast, and an excellent fighter. It entered production that year, and in 1936 large numbers were sent to assist Republican forces during the Spanish Civil War. There the Chaika proved demonstrably supe­rior to the German Heinkel He 51, and it was a for­midable opponent for the supremely agile Fiat CR 32 Chirri. By 1938 I 15s were also heavily engaged against Japanese forces in Mongolia, but they suf­
fered at the hands of modern Nakajima Ki 27 mono­plane fighters.

Russian authorities remained convinced that biplanes were still viable weapons, so they author­ized Polikarpov to update his design again. In 1937 he responded with the I 15ter, later designated the I 153, which brought biplane performance on par with monoplane opponents. With a powerful engine and retractable landing gear, it climbed faster than many of its intended adversaries. After preliminary com­bat in Spain during 1938-1939, large numbers of I 153s arrived in Mongolia, where, after heavy losses to both sides, they finally mastered the nimble Japa­nese monoplanes. Consequently, the Soviets kept the I 153 in production long after it had become ob­solete. In 1941 it represented a fair portion of Rus­sian fighter strength and sustained great losses from German Messerschmitt Bf 109s. The rugged biplane then found a new lease on life as a ground-attack craft until being replaced by Ilyushin Il 2s in 1943. A total of 3,457 Chaikas had been built.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 29 feet, 6 inches; length, 19 feet, 7 inches; height, 8 feet, 4 inches

Weights: empty, 2,976 pounds; gross, 3,781 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 775-horsepower Shvetsov M-52 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 242 miles per hour; ceiling, 16,405 feet; range, 497 miles Armament: 4 x 7.62mm machine guns Service dates: 1935-1943

he stubby I 16 heralded new concepts in fighter technology, becoming the first monoplane with retractable landing gear to enter squadron service. Obsolete by World War II, it gained further renown by pioneering ramming tactics.

The famous I 16 fighter evolved from attempts by Nikolai Polikarpov to wring greater performance from his already successful I 5 design. His engineers began tinkering with notions of a squat, powerful monoplane fighter, Russia’s first. The resulting pro­totype was extremely advanced in concept, arguably superior to any fighter in existence. The I 16 was a low-wing, cantilevered monoplane with a metal frame, a wooden monocoque fuselage, and fabric – covered wings. More important, it was the first such Russian craft with fully retractable landing gear. The I 16 was extremely fast for its day, exhibiting a 60-75 mile-per-hour advantage over biplane fighters. It also possessed an excellent roll rate and was su­perbly capable of climbing and zooming. However, the stubby craft proved unforgiving and somewhat
unstable along all three axes. Pilots had to carefully employ tactics emphasizing speed, not maneuver­ability, to survive.

I 16s were initially sent to Spain to assist Repub­lican forces, who dubbed the little craft Mosca (Fly). It fought well enough but was never as highly re­garded as the slower I 15 biplanes. I 16s were also fielded during the 1939 clash with Japan in Mongolia, rendering useful service against more nimble but slower adversaries. With international tensions on the rise, the Soviets decided to acquire large numbers of I 16s as quickly as possible. By the time production ceased in 1940, more than 7,000 had been produced, making it the most numerous fighter of the Red Air Force. In June 1941 German forces exacted a heavy toll from the obsolete I 16s, but their rugged construc­tion was ideal for the desperate taran (ramming) at­tacks. Despite perils to both plane and pilot, Soviet fliers bravely adopted the new tactic, inflicting heavy damage on German aircraft. The I 16s were finally withdrawn from service in 1943.

Type: Light Bomber; Reconnaissance

Dimensions: wingspan, 50 feet, 10 inches; length, 34 feet, 7 inches; height, 11 feet, 9 inches

Weights: empty, 4,916 pounds; gross, 7,716 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 850-horsepower M-34N liquid-cooled in-line engine

Performance: maximum speed, 196 miles per hour; ceiling, 28,545 feet; range, 621 miles

Armament: 3 x 7.62mm machine guns; up to 882 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1930-1943

he R 5 was a successful multipurpose Russian design of the 1930s and superior to similar ma­chines in the West. Rugged and fast, it gained notori­ety during the Spanish Civil War under the nickname Natasha.

The year 1927 was a banner one for Nikolai Po­likarpov, for he introduced two exceptionally long – serving aircraft. The first was the famous U 2, des­tined to be the most numerous airplane of all time. The second was the R 5, conceived as a general-pur­pose plane/light bomber, the first of its kind for the Red Air Force. The R 5 was an unequal-wing biplane constructed mostly of wood and was fabric-covered. It had single-bay wings fastened by “N” struts cant­ing outward toward the wingtips. The fuselage was rather streamlined and seated a crew of two in closely spaced tandem cockpits. The craft could be fitted with either wheels or skis, and test flights re­vealed the R 5 to be fast and strong. It entered ser­vice in 1930; by the time production halted in 1938,
more than 6,000 R 5s had been produced. They were the most numerous aircraft of their class in the world.

In service the R 5 was possibly the best light bomber of its day. During a 1930 international air­plane meet in Teheran, Persia, it easily bested such notables as the Fokker CV and Westland Wapiti in a number of categories. During this period the craft also did useful work pioneering the art of in-flight refueling. In September 1930 three R 5s flew contin­uously for 61 hours, landing without incident after covering 6,526 miles. In 1938 the craft was dis­patched in small numbers to fight in the Spanish Civil War on behalf of Republican forces. It did use­ful ground-attack work, earning the affectionate nickname Natasha. R 5s subsequently formed the bulk of Soviet light attack regiments up through the German invasion of 1941. Many were destroyed in that conflict, but others simply soldiered on until being replaced by Ilyushin Il 2s in 1943.

Type: Trainer; Light Bomber; Reconnaissance; Liaison

Dimensions: wingspan, 37 feet, 4 inches; length, 26 feet, 7 inches; height, 9 feet, 10 inches

Weights: empty, 1,350 pounds; gross, 2,167 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 110-horsepower Shvetsov M-11 radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 93 miles per hour; ceiling, 10,827 feet; range, 342 miles Armament: none Service dates: 1928-

he amazingly versatile U 2 was built in greater numbers than any other aircraft. It proved equally useful as a trainer or transport, but it won a measure of immortality as a night bomber.

In 1927 the Soviet government expressed need for a new general-purpose biplane. It was intended as their first mass-produced trainer, so the new ma­chine had to be easy to fly, simple to maintain, and able to operate under very primitive conditions. The Polikarpov design bureau was tasked with develop­ing such a craft, but initial efforts proved halting. The first prototype featured rectangular, austere lines, wings, and tail surfaces. When first test-flown, it failed to become airborne. Polikarpov subse­quently revamped the design with rounder wingtips and single-bay configuration. The resulting U 2 was completely successful, one of the most versatile air­craft ever flown. It entered production in 1928, and by 1941 an estimated 13,000 were flying. They ful­filled a staggering variety of roles, including agricul­tural, civilian, ambulance, transportation, glider tug,
and parachute training duties. In 1938 a U 2 made history by locating five Soviet scientists marooned on a floating iceberg for nine months. It seemed there was little that the easy-handling biplane could not do.

The onset of World War II brought additional luster to Polikarpov’s masterpiece. Armed with bombs and small arms, they distinguished them­selves as nighttime light bombers, or intruders. Fly­ing low in the dark, the noisy U 2s dropped bombs on German soldiers to deny them sleep. Given their slow speed and great maneuverability, U 2s were also extremely hard to shoot down. When Nikolai Polikarpov died in 1943, Stalin ordered the airplane rechristened the Po 2 in his honor. By war’s end, en­tire regiments of Po 2 night squadrons existed, many flown exclusively by women. The little plane contin­ued in production up until 1952, after 40,000 had been constructed. Thousands of others were ex­ported to former Soviet satellite countries and are still in use today.

Type: Fighter; Light Bomber; Reconnaissance

Dimensions: wingspan, 52 feet, 6 inches; length, 35 feet, 10 inches; height, 11 feet, 9 inches Power plant: 2 x 700-horsepower Gnome-Rhone 14M radial engines Performance: maximum speed, 276 miles per hour; ceiling, 27,890 feet; range, 932 miles Armament: 5 x 7.5mm machine guns; 1,323 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1938-1942

he Potez 63 represented a large multirole family of combat aircraft. Marginally obsolete by 1940, they suffered heavy losses and were later exported to Romania.

In 1934 the French Air Ministry issued specifi­cations for a new two-seat fighter capable of night operations, bombardment, and reconnaissance. A special three-seat version was also desired as a “command fighter” to direct single-seat craft into ac­tion. In 1936 Louis Coroller unveiled the Potez 63 prototype to fulfill all these tasks. This was a large, all-metal airplane, one of the first “strategic” fighters then in vogue. Like its German counterpart, the Messerschmitt Bf 110, it possessed twin engines, twin rudders, and a large greenhouse canopy. After teething problems were resolved, the Potez 630 and slightly modified Potez 631s entered service in 1938. They proved to be underpowered and were retained only as trainers. But the company went on to de­velop the Potez 633 ground-attack version, along with the Potez 63.11 reconnaissance version. The latter model featured an extensively redesigned
nose with glazed windows and a shorter canopy moved aft along the fuselage. With 1,360 machines built in various versions, the Potez 63 series was the most numerous French design of World War II.

A Potez 63 has the distinction of being the first Allied aircraft lost in the West, when one was downed on September 8, 1939. Once the Battle of France com­menced in May 1940, the Potez aircraft equipped sev­eral groupes de chasse (fighter groups) in northern France and were heavily engaged. Others saw front­line service with numerous reconnaissance outfits.

Lacking adequate fighter escort and commit­ted to low-altitude attacks, both types suffered heavy losses. In fact, several Potez 631s were some­times shot down by British aircraft who mistook them for Bf 110s. By the time of France’s capitula­tion, more than 400 machines had been destroyed. Many surviving craft were exported to Romania in time to be used against the Soviet Union in 1941. Small handfuls of Potez 63.11s were also retained by Vichy forces in North Africa, where they flew briefly against Allied forces.

Type: Fighter

Dimensions: wingspan, 35 feet, 2 inches; length, 24 feet, 9 inches; height, 9 feet, 4 inches

Weights: empty, 2,529 pounds; gross, 3,968 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 645-horsepower Bristol Mercury VIS radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 242 miles per hour; ceiling, 26,250 feet; range, 435 miles

Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machine guns

Service dates: 1935-1939

hen it first appeared in 1935, the Jedenastka was arguably among the world’s finest fighter planes. Four years later this distinctive craft was flown with great skill and courage in the defense of Poland.

For many years the fledgling Lotnictowo Wo – jskowe (Polish air force) groped with imported and usually mediocre aircraft. However, in 1929 Zygmunt Pulawski, a brilliant young designer working at the National Aircraft Factory (PZL), conceived a unique, parasol-winged fighter design, the P 1. This was fol­lowed two years later by the P 7, which was high – powered, constructed entirely of metal, and covered by stressed skin. Its introduction pushed Poland to the forefront of aviation technology at a time when most Western powers were still designing fabric-cov­ered biplanes. In 1931 Pulawski, before his death in a plane crash, began designing an improved version of the P 7, which became known as the P 11. It enjoyed a more powerful engine and numerous aeronautical refinements that rendered it an even better airplane
than the P 7. The P 11, affectionately known by pilots as the Jedenastka (Eleventh) was ruggedly built, fast for its day, and outstandingly maneuverable. It was so impressive that Romania purchased 50 machines outright and applied for a license to construct them. However, within a few years these world-famous gull-wing wonders were overtaken by low-wing monoplane aircraft—most notably Germany’s Messerschmitt Bf 109—and rendered obsolete.

By the advent of World War II in September 1939, the PZL P 11s constituted the bulk of Poland’s first line of defense. Polish pilots, seemingly helpless in the face of modern opposition, proved fanatically brave in defending their homeland. In fact, the first German aircraft shot down in World War II fell to the guns of a P 11 on September 1, 1939. Although ultimately overrun, these brave aviators managed to claw down 124 German aircraft with a loss of 114 P 11s. Of the 258 Jedenastkas constructed, one sur­vives in Warsaw and is displayed as a cherished symbol of national resistance.

Type: Light Bomber; Reconnaissance

Dimensions: wingspan, 45 feet, 9 inches; length, 31 feet, 9 inches; height, 10 feet, 10 inches

Weights: empty, 4,251 pounds; gross, 7,771 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 680-horsepower Bristol Pegasus VIII radial engine

Performance: maximum speed, 199 miles per hour; ceiling, 23,950 feet; range, 783 miles

Armament: 3 x 7.7mm machine guns; up to 1,543 pounds of bombs

Service dates: 1937-1939

he Karas was another formerly advanced Polish machine that had fallen behind technologically by 1939. Flown with fanatical bravery, they inflicted heavy losses upon German armored formations.

In 1931 the Polish government sought to ac­quire a new light bomber based upon the unsuccess­ful PZL P 13 civilian transport. Several prototypes were then constructed until the cowling was low­ered somewhat to improve the pilot’s forward vi­sion. This change gave the new P 23 Karas (Carp) its decidedly humped appearance. It was an all­metal machine with fixed, spatted landing gear and a spacious glazed canopy. The P 23 also mounted a bombardier/tailgunner’s ventral gondola just aft of the main wing. At the time it debuted, the Karas possessed radically modern features such as stressed skin made from sandwiched alloy/balsa wood. This innovation conferred great strength and light weight to the machine. Initial production mod­els were powered by a 590-horsepower Bristol Pega­sus radial engine, but their performance proved lim­
ited and they served as trainers. Subsequent models featured more powerful engines and greater pay­load, entering frontline service in 1937. By 1939 P 23s equipped 12 bombing and reconnaissance squadrons in the Polish air force. Bulgaria also ex­pressed interest in the P 23, purchasing 12 and or­dering an additional 42 in 1937. Nonetheless, by the eve of World War II the Karas had become outdated as light bombers and helpless in the face of deter­mined fighter opposition.

The initial German blitzkrieg of September 1, 1939, failed to destroy many P 23s on the ground, and they struck back furiously at oncoming armored columns. Several Panzer forces lost up to 30 percent of their equipment in these raids, although many P 23s were claimed by ground fire and enemy fight­ers. Toward the end of the month-long campaign, a handful of surviving Karas fought their way to neu­tral Romania. Within two years these machines were reconditioned and flown against the Soviet Union. A total of 253 were built.

Type: Medium Bomber

Dimensions: wingspan, 58 feet, 8 inches; length, 42 feet, 4 inches; height, 16 feet, 8 inches

Weights: empty, 9,293 pounds; gross, 19,577 pounds

Power plant: 2 x 925-horsepower Bristol Pegasus radial engines

Performance: maximum speed, 273 miles per hour; ceiling, 19,685 feet; range, 1,616 miles Armament: 3 x 7.7mm machine guns; up to 5,688 pounds of bombs Service dates: 1938-1939

he Los (Elk) was a world-class attack bomber and Poland’s most formidable air weapon of World War II. It arrived in only limited quantities but nonetheless performed heroic work throughout a hopelessly lopsided campaign.

The amazing P 37 Los had its origins in the ex­perimental P 30 civilian transport of 1930, which failed to attract a buyer. That year a design team under Jerzy Dabrowksi conceived a modern bomber version of the same craft and proffered it to the gov­ernment in 1934. A prototype was then authorized, first flying in 1936. The P 37 marked a pinnacle in medium bomber development for, in terms of design and performance, it was years ahead of contempo­rary machines. This was a sleek, all-metal, low-wing monoplane employing stressed skin throughout. Al­though relatively low-powered, its broad-chord wings permitted amazing lifting abilities, and it could hoist more than 5,000 pounds of bombs aloft—the equivalent of half its own empty weight! No medium bomber in the world—and few heavy bombers for that matter—could approach such per­
formance. The Los entered production in 1937, and the first units became operational the following year. The government originally ordered 150 ma­chines, but resistance from the Polish High Com­mand, which viewed medium bombers as expensive and unnecessary, managed to reduce procurement by a third. Meanwhile, other countries expressed great interest in the P 37, with Bulgaria, Turkey, Ro­mania, and Yugoslavia placing sizable orders. A total of 103 machines were built.

By the advent of World War II in September 1939, the Polish air force could muster only 36 fully equipped P 37s. Several score sat available in wait­ing but lacked bombsights and other essential equip­ment. Nonetheless, the Los roared into action, in­flicting considerable damage upon advancing German columns. When the outcome of the fight be­came helpless, around 40 surviving machines fled to neutral Romania and were absorbed into its air force. Within two years these fugitives were recondi­tioned and flown with good effect against the Soviet Union.

Type: Reconnaissance

Dimensions: 47 feet, 2 inches; length, 29 feet; height, 10 feet, 8 inches Weights: empty, 2,251 pounds; gross, 3,613 pounds

Power plant: 1 x 260-horsepower Mercedes D VIa liquid-cooled in-line engine Performance: maximum speed, 109 miles per hour; ceiling, 16,405 feet; range, 300 miles Armament: 2 x 7.92mm machine guns Service dates: 1917-1918

he long-serving Albatros C class was among the finest and most adaptable reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. They combined good performance and reliability into an aesthetically pleasing airframe.

The Albatros family of two-seat reconnais­sance aircraft grew out of the prewar unarmed B – series. The new C versions, introduced in 1915, were armed, more strongly built, and capable of de­fensive maneuvering. Successive models tended to be better armed and better powered, and in 1917 the trend culminated in the introduction of the C X model. This version mounted the new 260-horse­power Mercedes D IVa engine that gave it greater speed and altitude than previous versions. It capped a tendency in the reconnaissance family to incorporate more and more features of the famous D series of fighters. It also sported lengthened wings that housed flush-mounted radiators and double ailerons. The C X displayed good high-alti­tude performance and the two-man crew carried its own oxygen supply aloft along with a wireless
radio. The plane commenced field service in the summer of 1917 and proved entirely successful as a photo platform and artillery spotter. A total of 330 machines were constructed, and they served with distinction to war’s end.

In time Albatros followed up with an improved model of the C X, the C XII. From an aesthetic stand­point, this was the most pleasing aircraft of the en­tire series. The C XII was the first reconnaissance machine to directly incorporate the trademark ellip­tical fuselage cross-section of the famous D-series fighters. It also employed an enlarged, curved tailfin strongly reminiscent of the scouts, along with a tri­angular ventral fin attached to the tail skid. How­ever, the motor, wing, and landing gear of the previ­ous aircraft were retained. The overall effect of the new machine was sleek and elegant. However, for all its refinement, the C XII boasted little improve­ment over the C X in terms of performance. It was nevertheless deployed in some numbers and served alongside earlier versions until the Armistice.