Flight Crew
AFANASYEV, Viktor Mikhailovich, 50, Russian Air Force, 3rd mission Previous missions: Soyuz TM11 (1990); Soyuz TM18 (1994)
HAIGNERE, Jean-Pierre, 50, French Air Force, flight engineer, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM17
BELLA, Ivan, 34, Slovak Armed (Air) Forces, cosmonaut researcher
Flight Log
This was to prove the final in-orbit hand-over of a Mir crew on a station that had been continually manned since September 1989. The short Slovak Stefanik scientific mission was reportedly paid for by the Russians writing off a Soviet era debt to Slovakia of US$20 million. France reportedly paid US$20.6 million for the Perseus programme, which should have been completed in June but was extended at no extra cost until August.
The Slovak programme encompassed medical experiments, measurements of radiation and observations of the development of quail eggs. Haignere’s Perseus programme included the use of equipment brought up in previous French missions as well as four new experiments. The programme focused on life sciences, physics and space technology. Two other experiments were provided by ESA and there were several experiments provided by French high schools working in cooperation with CNES. On 16 April, Haignere and Afanasyev competed a 6 hour 19 minute EVA in which they were to test a new sealant tool for repairing small holes in the hull. A simulated hole in Kvant was to be used in the test, and the sealant was also to have been used for Spektr, but the hole in the module was never pinpointed. In the test, the valve failed to open and the simulation at Kvant had to be cancelled. The EVA crew did retrieve experiment samples from the exterior of the station, but the deployment of new detectors had to be abandoned as they fell behind schedule.
Slovakia’s first cosmonaut Bella (left) was launched aboard Soyuz TM29 with Russian Afanasyev (centre) and Frenchman Haignere
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The three men continued their programmes of biomedical studies, astrophysical and technical experiments and Earth photography, as well as astronomical and solar observations, filling the weeks as they orbited in Mir. In June, Avdeyev surpassed the career record of 681 days accumulated time in space (previously held by Dr. Valery Polyakov). According to some reports, not all the time spent on Mir was harmonious, with Afanasyev not enjoying his third mission to Mir and at times being at odds with Haignere. Two EVAs by Afanasyev and Avdeyev were completed in July (23 Jul for 6 hours 7 minutes and 27 Jul for 5 hours 22 minutes) to deploy an elliptical 6.4 x 5.2m reflector antenna that was 1.1m high. This was a test of a new prototype design for a telecommunications antenna planned for future generations of satellites. It initially refused to deploy and remained furled despite the crew kicking it. During the second EVA, they were able to complete the deployment operation. Over the course of the two EVAs, they also deployed and returned experiments and sample cassettes on the exterior of the station, and during the second EVA they detached the antenna from the Sofora girder, manually pushing it away from the station.
On 25 July, Haignere spoke over the radio to fellow French astronaut Michel Tognini, who was on Columbia during the STS-93 mission. Towards the end of July and in Early August, the crew’s scientific work began to come to an end and for several days the three cosmonauts began winding up their experiments and mothballing the station. Later, they witnessed the effects of the 11 August 1999 total solar eclipse as the shadow passed over southern England, and over the Indian sub-continent one orbit later.
On 27 August, the crew undocked from Mir to complete a landing a few hours later. Afanasyev said that his crew were “abandoning a piece of Russia [with] grief in our souls.’’ According to Russian press releases, there had been over 22,000 scientific experiments in 20 research programmes, utilising over 240 pieces of scientific equipment. A total of 14 tons of scientific hardware had been used on Mir by the 27 main crews and numerous visiting crew members. For now, there did not seem to be any further missions on the horizon, although Mir was kept in autonomous flight while all options were examined. The Russians seemed to have committed themselves to ISS and the end of Mir was approaching.
Milestones
211th manned space flight 88th Russian manned space flight 81st manned Soyuz mission 28th manned Soyuz TM mission 29th Mir resident crew
34th Russian and 73rd flight with EVA operations 6th French long-duration mission (189 days)
Haignere celebrates his 51st birthday on Mir (19 May)
New duration record of 748 days in space set by Avdeyev over three missions New duration record of 209 days in space for a non-Russian (Haignere)
Int. Designation
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2002-018A
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Launched
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8 April 2002
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Launch Site
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Pad 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida
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Landed
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20 April 2002
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Landing Site
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Runway 33, Shuttle Landing Facility, KSC, Florida
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Launch Vehicle
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OV-104 Atlantis/ET-114/SRB BI-112/SSME #1 2048; #2 2051; #3 2045
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Duration
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10 days 19 hrs 42 min 44 sec
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Call sign
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Atlantis
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Objective
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ISS assembly flight 8A; delivery of S0 Truss and Mobile Transporter
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Flight Crew
BLOOMFIELD, Michael John, 43, USAF, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-86 (1997); STS-97 (2000)
FRICK, Stephen Nathaniel, 37, USN, pilot WALHEIM, Rex Joseph, 39, USAF, mission specialist 1 OCHOA, Ellen Lauri, 43, civilian, mission specialist 2, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-56 (1993); STS-66 (1994); STS-96 (1999)
MORIN, Lee Miller Emile, 49, USN, mission specialist 3 ROSS, Jerry Lynn, 54, civilian, mission specialist 4, 7th mission Previous missions: STS 61-B (1985); STS-27 (1988); STS-37 (1991); STS-55 (1993); STS-74 (1995); STS-88 (1998)
SMITH, Steven Lee, 43, civilian, mission specialist 5, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-68 (1994); STS-82 (1997); STS-103 (1999)
Flight Log
The 4 April launch was terminated an hour into the tanking due to a leak in a LH vent line on the Mobile Launcher Platform at the pad. Following repairs to the line, the launch was rescheduled to 8 April but was delayed on the day due to drop-outs in a back-up launcher processing system. After reloading the data, the launch was achieved with just 11 seconds remaining in the launch window.
Docking with ISS occurred on FD 3 (10 Apr) and over the next 170 hours, the Shuttle crew completed 4 EVAs to install the S0 Truss. During and in between the EVAs, the astronauts transferred supplies, equipment and experiments to the station, and brought back trash and unwanted hardware. They also transferred 45 kg of oxygen and 22 kg of nitrogen to the storage tanks in Quest to re-pressurise the airlock following EVA operations. A total of 664 kg of water was transferred to the ISS, along with an experimental plant growth chamber which replaced a crystal growth experi-
Steve Smith works inside the S0 Truss, newly installed on ISS. Rex Walheim (out of frame) worked in tandem with Smith during the mission’s third EVA
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ment that would be returned to Earth. The crew also transferred a new freezer for future crystal sample storage.
During FD 4, the S0 Truss was lifted out of the payload bay of Atlantis by Ellen Ochoa using the station’s RMS, assisted by ISS-4 crew member Dan Bursch. It was located onto a clamp at the top of the Destiny lab, where it would serve as a platform on which other trusses would be attached and additional solar arrays mounted. The truss also included navigation devices, computers, coolant and power systems for additional laboratories and facilities to be added to the station later.
The EVAs were completed by two pairs of STS-110 astronauts. The first and third were performed by Smith (EV1) and Walheim (EV2), while the second and fourth were conducted by Ross (EV3) and Morin (EV4) (dubbed the “Silver” Team, as they were both grandfathers). EVA 1 (11 Apr for 7 hours 48 minutes) focused mainly on electrical and structural connections of the truss to the station after it had been moved from Atlantis’s payload bay. The astronauts attached four mounting struts, deployed avionics trays and connected cables from Destiny to the new addition to the station. EVA 2 (13 Apr for 7 hours 30 minutes) saw the astronauts bolt the final two struts to the lab. Launch support panels and clamps were removed and a back-up device with an umbilical reel for the Mobile Transporter railcar was also installed. EVA 3 (14 Apr for 6 hours 27 minutes) was used to reconfigure electrical connections from the US lab to the truss for powering the Canadarm2. Clamps were also released on the Mobile Transporter cart during this EVA. EVA 4 (16 Mar for 6 hours 37 minutes) saw the installation of a 4.267-metre beam called the Airlock Spur from the S0 Truss to Quest to provide a quick pathway for future EVA astronauts. Floodlights, work platforms and electrical connections were also installed and connected in this final excursion of the mission.
Initial tests of the Mobile Transporter (railcar) were successfully completed on FD 8. ISS-4 crew member Walz commanded the transporter, using a laptop computer to move it to a work site about 5.2 metres down a rail that spanned the entire length of the 13.4m truss. Then it was moved to a second site and back to the first. The unmanned cart moved about 22m in total at a rate of about 3.5 cm per second. Automatic latching did not occur due to the railcar lifting slightly, but manual latching was successfully achieved. This unit would be extended over the coming missions and would be used to ease the translation of astronauts and equipment down the length of the completed truss in future years.
Milestones
231st manned space flight 139th US manned space flight 109th Shuttle mission 25th flight of Atlantis
53rd US and 86th flight with EVA operations
13th ISS Shuttle mission
5th Atlantis ISS mission
1st person to make 7 space flights (Ross)
US career EVA record of 58 hrs 18 minutes on 9 EVAs over 4 missions (Ross)
2002-020A
25 April 2002
Pad 1, Site 5, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan 5 May 2002 (in Soyuz TM33)
26 km southeast of Arkalyk
R7 (11A511U); spacecraft serial number (7K-M) 208 9 days 21 hrs 25 min 18 sec Uran (Uranus)
ISS mission 4S; Soyuz ferry exchange; Soyuz visiting mission 3; Italian Marco Polo research mission; South African SFP science mission
Flight Crew
GIDZENKO, Yuri Pavolich, 40, Russian Air Force, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: Soyuz TM22 (1995); ISS-1 (2000)
VITTORI, Roberto, 37, Italian Air Force, flight engineer SHUTTLEWORTH, Mark, 28, civilian, South African space flight participant
Flight Log
This mission successfully exchanged the older Soyuz TM33 spacecraft for a “fresh” return capsule at ISS. In addition, Italian ESA astronaut Vittori completed a science programme for the Italian Space Agency and the second private fare-paying space flight participant (Shuttleworth) also became the first citizen from South Africa to fly into space. Soyuz TM34 docked with ISS at the Zarya nadir docking port on 27 April.
In addition to the exchange of personal effects and flight hardware required to bring home the older Soyuz and leave the newer vehicle for the ISS-4 resident crew, the two Russian commanders worked on medical experiments and a joint Russian/ German/French plasma crystal experiment during the week of joint activities. Vittori’s activities under the Marco Polo science programme included 23 sessions with four biomedical experiments. These included the relationship of the health of the individual to possible reductions in working capacity, an in-orbit test of the functional capability of a new integrated garment, and a medical experiment on the effects of space radiation on the functional state of the central nervous system and into the working capacity of the test subject. There was also a study of the vegetative regulation of arterial pressure and heart rate.
Mark Shuttleworth was determined to make his visit to the space station more scientifically rewarding and valuable than that of the previous space flight participant, Dennis Tito. He actively developed a programme of life science experiments utilising Russian equipment already aboard the station, as well as bringing four South African
The Soyuz Taxi-3 crew onboard the ISS. L to r Soyuz Commander Yuri Gidzenko, ESA astronaut Roberto Vittori and South African SFP Mark Shuttleworth
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university-developed experiments with him on Soyuz. One of these would focus on stem cell research. Shuttleworth also took saliva samples from himself and his crew mates as part of the embryo and stem cell development experiment.
At the end of the week’s visit, the crew packed their experiment results and cargo into the DM of Soyuz TM33. Soyuz has a limited cargo return capability and could only return 50 kg worth of cargo, of which 15 kg was allocated to the return of Italian experiment results and data. The landing of TM33 occurred without incident on 5 May, ending another highly successful visiting ferry exchange mission. It was hoped that these missions would become a regular occurrence twice a year at the station, but not with Soyuz TM. A new variant of Soyuz was waiting in the wings, and this version would have the capacity to carry taller crew members, incorporate upgrades to onboard systems and hardware and be capable of a longer orbital service life of up to a year. The flight of TM34 was therefore the last of a series that had first flown in space in May 1986.
Milestones
232nd manned space flight 93rd Russian manned space flight 86th manned Soyuz mission 33rd manned Soyuz TM mission 4th ISS Soyuz mission (3S)
3rd Soyuz ISS taxi flight 3rd ISS visiting mission Final Soyuz TM mission
1st South African citizen in space (Shuttleworth)
Flight Crew
COCKRELL, Kenneth Dale, 52, civilian, commander, 5th mission Previous missions: STS-56 (1993); STS-69 (1995); STS-80 (1996); STS-98 (2001) LOCKHART, Paul Scott, 46, USAF, pilot
CHANG-DIAZ, Franklin Ramon de Los Angeles, 52, civilian, mission specialist 1, 7th mission
Previous missions: STS 61-C (1986); STS-34 (1989); STS-46 (1992); STS-60 (1994); STS-75 (1996); STS-91 (1998)
PERRIN, Philippe, 39, French Air Force, mission specialist 2 ISS-5 crew up only:
KORZUN, Valery Nikolayevich, 49, Russian Air Force, mission specialist 3, ISS-5 and Soyuz commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM24 (1996)
WHITSON, Peggy Annette, 42, civilian, mission specialist 4, ISS-5 science officer
TRESCHEV, Sergei Vladimiriovich, 43, civilian, Russian mission specialist 5, ISS-5 flight engineer
ISS-4 crew down only:
ONUFRIYENKO, Yuri Ivanovich, 40, Russian Air Force, ISS-4 and Soyuz commander, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM23 (1996)
BURSCH, Daniel Wheeler, 44, USN, ISS-4 flight engineer 1, mission specialist 4, 4th mission
Previous missions: STS-51 (1993); STS-68 (1994); STS-77 (1996)
WALZ, Carl Erwin, 46, USAF, ISS-4 flight engineer 2, mission specialist 5,
4th mission
Previous missions: STS-51 (1993); STS-65 (1994); STS-79 (1996)
Endeavour is shown docked to the ISS at the PMA-2 on the forward end of the Destiny laboratory. A portion of the Canadarm2 is visible in the lower left corner and the Endeavour RMS is in full view stretched out with the SO truss at its end
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Flight Log
The original 29 May launch date for this mission was scrubbed due to adverse weather conditions and the rescheduled 31 May launch was also cancelled, this time due to the discovery on 30 May of pressure differences in the left OMS pod on the Endeavour. The component would be replaced on the pad and the launch date changed to 4 June, but the unique nature of this problem meant additional work to build a test fixture, so the launch had to be delayed 24 hours to 5 June. The docking with ISS occurred on FD 3 (7 June) and the vehicles remained docked together for 189 hours. Later on FD 3, the official change-over of ISS resident crew occurred, with the ISS-4 crew formally ending their 182-day residence aboard the station and becoming part of the STS-111 crew. The ISS-5 crew, now with their seat liners in the Soyuz TM34 DM, were officially the resident crew aboard the station.
Three EVAs were completed by Chang-Diaz (EV1) and French astronaut Phillip Perrin (EV2). During their first EVA (9 Jun for 7 hours 14 minutes), they installed power and data cables and a grapple fixture to the P6 Truss, which would be used to relocate it to its final position. They also retrieved six micrometeoroid shields from Endeavour’s payload bay for temporary stowage on PMA-1. These would be installed on Zvezda by a later crew. They also inspected and photographed the failed CMG on the Z1 Truss and removed thermal blankets from the Mobile Base System before positioning it above the Mobile Transporter to thermally condition it prior to installation on the next EVA. During the second EVA (11 Jun for 5 hours), the two astronauts connected primary and back-up video and data cables between the MT railcar and MBS, and deployed an auxiliary grapple fixture on the MBS. This was called the Payload Orbital Replacement Unit Accommodation (POA) and is designed to grapple future payloads and hold on to them as they are moved across the station’s truss atop the MBS. The attachment of four bolts completed the installation of the MBS and the crew also relocated a TV camera for better views of station assembly and maintenance operations. During the final EVA (13 Jun for 7 hours 17 minutes), the astronauts replaced the faulty Canadarm2 wrist roll joint with a new unit that had been brought up to the station with them in the Shuttle’s payload bay. The faulty joint was stowed in the payload bay for return to Earth. This repair restored the station’s RMS system to operational status.
MLPM Leonardo was moved from the payload bay of Endeavour to the side of the Unity module on 8 June and remained there for unloading and loading until it was returned to the payload bay on 14 June. In the transfer of logistics, cargo, hardware and supplies to the station, the crew relocated 3,652 kg from Leonardo and a further 453 kg from lockers on Endeavour’s mid-deck. For the return to Earth, the MPLM was filled with 2,117 kg of equipment, waste and items no longer needed and a further 453 kg of returned material was located in the mid-deck lockers of the Shuttle. Among the items moved over to the station was a new science rack to house microgravity experiments, and a glove box that would permit the station crew to begin a series of experiments that required isolation conditions.
The Shuttle landed at Edwards AFB after three days of trying to land at the Cape. Low clouds, rain and thunderstorms cancelled KSC landing attempts on 17,18 and 19 June, forcing the decision to land at Edwards AFB and giving the Shuttle and ISS-4 crews an additional two days in space.
Milestones
233rd manned space flight
140th US manned space flight
110th Shuttle mission
18th flight of Endeavour
54th US and 87th flight with EVA operations
14th Shuttle ISS mission
5th Endeavour ISS mission
5th MPLM flight
3rd MPLM-1 (Leonardo) flight
1st French Shuttle crew member EVA
1st French EVA from ISS (via Quest)
Flight Crew
LOPEZ-ALEGRIA, Michael Eladio, 48, USN, ISS-14 commander and science officer, 4th mission
Previous missions: STS-73 (1995); STS-92 (2000); STS-113 (2002)
TYURIN, Mikhail Vladislavovich, 46, civilian, Russian ISS-14 Soyuz commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: ISS-3 (2001)
ANSARI, Anousheh, 40, civilian, US space flight participant
Flight Log
The original spaceflight participant on this mission was scheduled to be Japanese businessman Daisuke Enomato, but on 21 August he failed the pre-flight medical and was replaced by his back-up Anousheh Ansari. She is the Iranian-born naturalised American who co-founded Telecom Technologies Inc. in 1993, and the X-Prize suborbital space flight record attempts (won in 2005 by Spaceship One). During the flight to ISS, she reportedly suffered from Spaceflight Adaptation Syndrome, but seemed to recover successfully once on ISS to complete her research programme. This consisted of three TV broadcasts, amateur radio broadcasts, photo and video surveys of the Russian segment of ISS for education purposes, participation in two small ESA experiments and commemorative activities, including regular email contact to the Internet through her own website during the mission. She returned to Earth on 29 September with the ISS-13 crew in TMA8.
Soyuz TMA9 docked with ISS on 21 September to begin the six-month residency of the ISS-14 crew. During their stay, they will work with German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter until he is replaced by NASA astronaut Sunita Williams during the STS-116 mission in December. Williams, like Reiter, will serve as ISS-14 flight
A million dollar ticket to space. Space flight participant Ansari is shown strapped to her Soyuz TMA seat in TMA9 shortly after entering orbit on the two-day flight to ISS with the Expedition Fourteen crew
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engineer 2 and will continue to work with the ISS-15 crew until she in turn is replaced by another NASA astronaut during STS-118 in the spring of 2007.
The residency of ISS-14 will see a significant increase in onboard science activities with the return of a resident three-person crew. In addition, they will host Shuttle missions STS-116 and 117, receive two Progress re-supply missions and complete four EVAs. One of the spacewalks will be by Tyurin and Lopez-Alegria using the Pirs airlock and wearing Orlan suits. The other three will be by Lopez-Alegria and Williams out of the Quest airlock wearing US suits. The ISS-14 crew are expected to be relieved by the ISS-15 crew in March 2007, and will return to Earth with the next space flight participant (launched with the ISS-15 crew on TMA10) on 19 March 2007.
Milestones
250th manned space flight 102nd Russian manned space flight 95th manned Soyuz mission 9th manned Soyuz TMA mission 11th ISS Soyuz mission (11S)
11th visiting mission (VC-11)
4th space flight participant 1st female space flight participant
The Atlas ICBM was used to launch four manned Mercury missions in 1962-3, while the Titan II ICBM launched ten Gemini crews between 1965-6. A modified Titan II would have been used to fly the manned DynaSoar military space plane in the mid – 1960s, but this was cancelled in 1963 and replaced by the Gemini-based military Manned Orbital Laboratory. This was due to be launched on a Titan IIIM starting in 1966 but was also cancelled (in 1969), with some of its astronauts transferring to NASA.
The Atlas D intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) had a thrust of 166,470 kg (367,066 lb) from two Rocketdyne LR89 engines – which were burnt out and separated at about T + 2 min 14 sec – and an LR105 central sustainer engine. These were powered by liquid oxygen and kerosene. The Atlas was stabilised at lift-off by two powerful vernier engines. The Mercury-Atlas combination was 29 m (95 ft) high. The Atlas booster for the fifth manned mission was the first of a new model to be used for Mercury and was static test-fired on the pad because the US Air Force was concerned about turbo-pump failures that had occurred on some military ICBM launches. Atlas 113D would also ascend on ignition, rather than remaining on the pad for the previously prescribed two-second hold down period.
The Gemini Launch Vehicle (GLV) was a modified ICBM. Its twin first-stage LR-87 engines burned nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine hypergolic propellants which ignited spontaneously on contact. The first-stage engines had a thrust of 195,046 kg (430,076 lb). The second stage, with a smaller LR-91 engine, had a thrust of 45,359 kg (100,017 lb). First-stage cut-off came at T + 2 min 30 sec, with a “fire in the hole’’ second-stage ignition following immediately. Orbit was achieved in 5 min 30 sec after launch. The launch vehicle was 3.04m (10 ft) in diameter and with Gemini on top, was 33.22m (109ft) tall.
The Saturn family of launch vehicles was developed for civilian space launches by a team led by Werner von Braun. The series built upon the successes and proven hardware of its early variants (Saturn 1 and 1B) before the huge Saturn V was used to send American astronauts to the Moon. Other variants were proposed but none were funded or built. Following a series of unmanned launches, the Saturn 1 manned missions were cancelled as unnecessary. After unmanned test flights, the Saturn 1B
Comparison of the US Mercury, Gemini and Apollo space capsules, and their launchers
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launched one Apollo crew on a test flight in 1968, three Skylab space station crews in 1973-4 and the US part of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Program in 1975. Just two unmanned test flights were flown before the Saturn V carried a crew aloft for the first time. Apollo 8 and 10-17 launched their crews to the Moon in 1968-72, while Apollo 9 launched to Earth orbit as planned.
The Saturn 1B launch vehicle, with the launch escape system on top of the Command Module, was 74.37 m (244 ft) tall. The launch escape system comprised a 10m (33ft) high tower with a 66,675kg (147,018lb) thrust solid propellant motor, which could be used on the pad or during the first 100 seconds of launch. When ejected, it pulled away a conical blast shield from the Command Module, exposing the latter’s five windows. The first stage of the Saturn 1B comprised eight H1 engines, developing a thrust of 743,899 kg (1,640,297 lb) and burning the RP1 and liquid oxygen propellants for the first 150 seconds. The second stage was the S-IVB cryogenic liquid oxygen/ liquid hydrogen stage that would also form the third stage of the Saturn V booster. The S-IVB was powered by the J2,102,059 kg (225,040 lb) thrust engine with a burn time of 450 seconds. This engine could be restarted. The Saturn S-IVB also included the allimportant Instrument Unit, the vehicle’s guidance and performance system. The
Saturn 1B was also the first manned launch vehicle used that was not a converted ballistic missile.
The Saturn V launch vehicle was 110.64 m (363 ft) high from the base of the F1 engines to the tip of the launch escape system tower. The first stage, called the S-1C, had five F1 engines developing a thrust of 3,442,801kg (7,591,376 lb) and burning liquid oxygen and RP1 propellants at a rate of 15 tonnes a second. The second stage, the S-11, also had five engines, called J2, with a thrust of 498,956kg (1,100,198 lb). The third stage was the S-IVB from the Saturn 1B launch vehicle. The whole vehicle weighed 2,903,020 kg (6,401,159 lb) at lift-off. The third stage was used for the Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI) burn to take the spacecraft out of Earth orbit and towards the Moon. The last Saturn V launch was a two-stage variant that carried the unmanned Saturn Workshop (Skylab) – itself a modified former S-IVB stage – in 1973. The earlier and larger Nova launch vehicle was abandoned in favour of the Saturn class of vehicles, which would be developed much quicker.
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The Space Shuttle flew its first mission in 1981 and will be retired in 2010, although the programme may be extended if there are any further delays to the completion of the International Space Station. The “Space Shuttle” is a combination of boosters, fuel tank and orbital vehicle, often termed “the stack”. The orbiter is the manned portion of the vehicle and there have been six orbiters built: OV-101 (Enterprise) was used for
With the Solid Rocket Boosters lit, the Shuttle is committed to launch
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atmospheric and ground tests; OV-102 (Columbia 1981-2003) was the first to launch to space and was lost in the STS-107 re-entry accident; OV-099 (Challenger 19831986) was a former structural test article and was lost in the STS 51-L launch accident; OV-103 (Discovery) is the oldest remaining vehicle and has been in service since 1984; OV-104 (Atlantis) has been used since 1985; and OV-105 (Endeavour) was built as a replacement for Challenger and was introduced in 1992.
The Space Shuttle orbiter Enterprise, which was to have been refurbished for space flight later, made five approach and landing atmospheric glide flights over Edwards Air Force Base in 1977, being air-launched from the back of a Boeing 747. Three flights were piloted by NASA astronauts Fred Haise and Gordon Fullerton and the other two by Joe Engle and Richard Truly. The longest glide flight, ALT 3, lasted 5 min 34 sec. Columbia was the first space flight-worthy orbiter and weighed 99,454 kg (219,296 lb) at orbital insertion. The orbiter measured 37.24 m (122 ft) long, with a wingspan of 23.79 m (78 ft). Three liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen main engines, with a maximum thrust rating of 100 per cent, 170,098 kg (375,066 lb) each at sea level, took the orbiter into an initial orbit, which was then augmented by firing the Orbital Manoeuvring System (OMS) engines. These were powered by nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH, which also powered the reaction control thrusters. Power was provided by a liquid oxygen/ liquid hydrogen fuel cell system. A Thermal Protection System (TPS) heat shield tile system, comprising over 35,000 tiles, covered the orbiter to protect it from re-entry temperatures of between 370 and 1,260°C. A 756,453 kg (1,667,979lb), 47m (154 ft) long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide External Tank (ET), painted white on the first two missions, held the SSME liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Attached to it were two 45.46 m (149 ft) long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB), weighing 586,502 kg (1,293,237lb). Tail to nose, the Shuttle stack measured 56.144m (184ft) tall. The orbiter, an unpowered glider, had conventional flaps, rudder and ailerons for control in the atmosphere. Columbia’s STS-1 landing speed was 344kph (214mph). Improvements were made to the Shuttle fleet all the time. For example, Challenger was equipped with SRBs with an uprated thrust of 1,469,200 kg (3,239,586 lb) on its first mission, as well as main engines which were throttled up to 104 per cent for the first time. It also carried a new lighter weight external tank. Much of the areas covered with Low Temperature Surface Insulation tiles on Columbia were covered by lighter blankets of Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation on Challenger.
The space race ultimately turned into the Moon race after President Kennedy’s challenge in May 1961 for the USA to land a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Human space exploration wasn’t going to involve step-by-step advances, but a crash programme.
Gemini
To cover the steps that still needed to be learned a new programme, Gemini, was devised. Now, the Americans could develop the technologies and experience required to go the Moon, including spacewalks, rendezvous and docking and long-duration flights. Ten crewed flights were launched between 1965 and 1966.
The distinctive black and white Gemini spacecraft consisted of two components; the re-entry module, of similar configuration but larger than Mercury, with a pressurised cabin, re-entry control, and rendezvous and recovery sections; and the adapter module, with retro-rockets and equipment. Gemini 3 – which did not carry rendezvous systems – weighed 7,111 kg (15,680lb) and measured 5.58m (18ft) long with a base diameter of 2.28 m (7.5 ft). The re-entry module was 3.35m (11ft) long and 2.28 m (7.5 ft) at its heat shield base.
Gemini 3’s systems included a 100 per cent oxygen environmental control system, electrical batteries – fuel cells would be fitted for the first time on Gemini 5 – sixteen liquid-fuelled orbital attitude and manoeuvring system thrusters, and four solid propellant 1,133 kg (2,498 lb) thrust retro re-entry control system rockets. Gemini was also equipped with ejection seats and did not have a launch escape system. There was a drogue and one main parachute, and the landing sequence ended with Gemini moving from vertical to 30° horizontal position for splashdown.
1963-015A
15 May 1963
Pad 14, Cape Canaveral, Florida
16 May 1963
128 km southeast of Midway Island, Pacific Ocean Atlas 130D; spacecraft serial number SC-20 1 day 10 hrs 19 min 49 sec Faith 7
First US 24-hour space flight
Flight Crew
COOPER, Leroy Gordon Jr., 36, USAF, pilot
Flight Log
Such was the increased confidence in the Mercury spacecraft and manned space flight, that NASA not only planned a flight three times as long as Schirra’s, but also increased the duration again in November 1962 to a full 22 orbits. The man in the hot seat, Gordon Cooper, was named the same month, with a May 1963 launch date as the target. Cooper, who affirmed his faith in God, his country and the Mercury team by naming his spacecraft Faith 7, had a packed flight plan, with emphasis on photography. He called the mission, the “flying camera’’. The camera was fixed on to the tripod on 22 April and was ready to go on 14 May.
Unfortunately, the gantry tower refused to budge because water had seeped into its diesel fuel pump and when the gantry was moved away two hours later, radar data from the Bermuda tracking station was insufficient and the launch was scrubbed. Not so on 15 May, when the relaxed Cooper awoke from a catnap in Faith 7 in time to be launched at 08: 04 hrs local time. He reached his 32.5° orbit with an apogee of 267 km (166 miles) and a peak velocity of 28,238 kph (17,547 mph) five minutes later. Cooper remained extremely unruffled and calm throughout the flight, which featured the first in-flight television from a US spacecraft, although the pictures were disappointing.
Cooper’s photography from Faith 7, however, was a revelation, confirming to observers his own reports of being able to see the wakes of ships and smoke from a log cabin in the Himalayas with the naked eye. Cooper deployed a small flashing beacon from Faith 7, the first deployment in history, as well as a tethered balloon like Schirra’s. The flight went swimmingly, with Cooper becoming the first American to sleep in space, but during the nineteenth orbit, the astronaut noticed the one-G light coming on, which apparently detected the onset of gravity.
Tracing the cause, the astronaut discovered that the attitude and stabilisation control system a/c converter had failed. The astronaut would have to perform an
Gordon Cooper heads for orbit aboard Mercury Atlas 9
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entirely manual re-entry, which he did perfectly, splashing down just 7 km (4 miles) from the USS Kearsage, 128 km (80 miles) southeast of Midway Island in the Pacific Ocean, at T + 1 day 10 hours 19 minutes 49 seconds, the longest launch-to-landing solo US manned space flight in history. A planned three-day mission (Mercury-Atlas 10/Freedom II, flown by Alan Shepard) was mooted but scrapped, and the Mercury programme ended officially on 12 June 1963
Milestones
10th manned space flight
6th US manned space flight
6th and final Mercury manned flight
1st satellite deployment from manned spacecraft
VOSTOK 5
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AND 6
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Int. Designation
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1963-020A (Vostok 5); 1963-023A (Vostok 6)
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Launched
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14 (Vostok 5) and 16 (Vostok 6) June 1963
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Launch Site
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Pad 1, Site 5, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan (both launches)
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Landed
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19 June 1963
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Landing Site
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619.4km northeast of Karaganda, Kazakhstan (Vostok 6); 539 km northwest of Karaganda, Kazakhstan (Vostok 5)
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Launch Vehicle
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R7 (8K72K); spacecraft serial number (11F63/3KA) #7 (Vostok 5); and #8 (Vostok 6)
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Duration
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4 days 23 hrs 6 min (Vostok 5); 2 days 22 hrs 50 min (Vostok 6)
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Callsign
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Yastreb (Hawk) – Vostok 5; Chaika (Seagull) – Vostok 6
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Objective
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Second group flight; five-day solo flight and first female space flight
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Flight Crew
BYKOVSKY, Valeri Fyodorovich, 28, Soviet Air Force, pilot Vostok 5 TERESHKOVA, Valentina Vladimirovna, 26, Soviet Air Force, pilot Vostok 6
Flight Log
The much-rumoured launch of Vostok 5 was delayed by bad weather on 13 June but the following day, at 17:00 hrs local time at Baikonur, launch pad 1 reverberated to the sound of another SL-3 ignition as cosmonaut Valeri Bykovsky began what was planned as a long-duration mission. At 4 days 23 hours 6 minutes, it actually became (and still remains) the longest manned solo space flight in history. Vostok 5 entered a 65° inclination orbit with an apogee of 209 km (130 miles) as rumours persisted that another Vostok would be launched the following day. It was to be a Vostok that would overshadow Bykovsky’s feat.
Vostok 6 carried the first woman (and tenth human) to venture into space. Valentina Tereshkova was launched at 14: 30 hrs Baikonur time. Reflecting the frenetic space activity of the 1960s, in between the Vostok 5 and 6 launches, the USA had performed six satellite launches, all from California. Vostok 6 entered a 65° inclination orbit with a peak altitude of 218 km (135 miles) and almost immediately came to within 5 km (3 miles) of Vostok 5 for a brief encounter, which according to the western press went much further, with such headlines as “Valya chases her space date’’.
As Tereshkova was not a pilot, it was perhaps inevitable that she reportedly had difficulties in adapting to weightlessness, but the rumours of her being so ill that she pleaded to come home seem far-fetched, as it appears that the flight, originally
Tereshkova and Korolyov in discussion prior to her historic space flight
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planned to be a 24-hour affair, was in fact extended. The launch of a woman into space was undoubtedly a major propaganda coup for Premier Khrushchev, who may have ordered such a mission, a theory supported by the fact that the next woman to fly into space was not launched until 1982.
Tereshkova was the first of the space pair to land, 624 km (388 miles) northeast of Karaganda at mission elapsed time of 2 days 22 hours 50 minutes. As the landing was a nominal one, she is thus the only woman to end a space flight outside her spacecraft, as well as the only one to make a solo female space flight. Bykovsky was the third Vostok pilot to experience a partial separation of the descent module but the separation occurred prior to the worst part of the re-entry profile and he returned to Earth about 540 km (336 miles) northwest of Karaganda. Plans were set in motion for a Vostok 7 mission lasting a week, by “non-cosmonaut” doctor Boris Yegorov, in the summer of 1964 but, like the US Mercury programme, the Soviet Vostok project ended after six flights. However, the next series of spacecraft (Soyuz, or “Union”) would not be ready for some time and so in order to appear ahead in the space race with the Americans, the Vostok was converted into what seemed to outsiders to be a radically new and improved spacecraft – Voskhod.
Milestones
11th and 12th manned space flights 5th and 6th Soviet manned space flights
5th and 6th Vostok manned flights
1st space flight with female crew (Vostok 6)
1st joint male-female space flight
Bykovsky has held the solo space flight record for over 43 years
On 27 June 1963, Robert Rushworth, 39, of the USAF flew X-15-3 on the third astro – flight, to 88 km. Less than a month later, on 19 July 1963, Joe Walker, 42, flew the same vehicle on the fourth astro-flight, this time to 105 km. Finally this year, on 22 August 1963, Walker flew X-15-3 to 107 km in the fifth astro-flight, the highest altitude any X-15 would attain.
Flight Crew
KOMAROV, Vladimir Mikhailovich, 37, Soviet Air Force, commander FEOKTISTOV, Konstantin Petrovich, 38, civilian, flight engineer YEGOROV, Boris Borisovich, 27, civilian, doctor
Flight Log
Voskhod (“Sunrise”) 1 provided the classic illustration of how the secret Soviet space programme completely misled the west. After the Vostok missions, Sergei Korolyov, the then anonymous space designer, considered improvements to the basic spacecraft to allow longer missions by more than one passenger. These studies led to the design of a new spacecraft, Soyuz, which would perform Earth orbital and lunar looping missions and support a possible lunar landing programme. Delays to Soyuz meant that there would be a hiatus in the manned space programme, to which Premier Khrushchev reacted in customary fashion, demanding a multi-crewed space flight before the United States launched its two-man Gemini spacecraft in early 1965.
As Soyuz could not be accelerated, Korolyov responded with a version of the uprated Vostok. But in order to launch three men rather than two, as the Americans were planning, practically all the “stuffing” had to be taken out of Vostok and the crew would have to fly without spacesuits and without any means of emergency escape. Voskhod would, however, carry a back up retro-rocket. Despite the imperfections of Voskhod, seven cosmonauts seemed happy to be assigned to train for the most risky manned space flight in history. The three to be chosen were a commander, Vladimir Komarov, a scientist, Konstantin Feoktistov – who, it turned out, was the man who helped design Vostok to fly with three passengers – and a doctor, Boris Yegorov.
They arrived at the launch pad wearing cotton overalls and leather flying helmets, about to board the first SL-4 booster to fly a manned crew a few days after the one and only “test flight” of the “new” Voskhod, as Cosmos 47. Launch came at 12: 30hrs Baikonur time and soon after the spacecraft had reached its 65°, 409 km (254 miles)
The first “space crew” walk down the red carpet to report on the success of their mission to welcoming officials in Moscow. L to r Feoktistov, Komarov, Yegorov
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maximum altitude orbit, the western media went wild, reporting that Russia had launched a “mammoth” new spaceship in which the scientist and doctor would perform experiments while the commander controlled the mission. In truth, the conditions were so cramped inside the Voskhod that it must have been hard to eat and go to the toilet, let alone perform experiments, although Yegorov apparently performed some basic medical checks.
Khrushchev had the propaganda success he wanted, but as he was congratulating the crew by telephone, the receiver was taken from his hands. The Brezhnev-Kosygin takeover had begun and it was they who greeted the fortunate cosmonauts after they had landed safely. The crew remained in the spherical capsule as small retro – rockets fired just before touchdown to cushion the impact, some 310 km (193 miles) northeast of Kustanai. The mission lasted just 1 day 17 minutes 3 seconds, the shortest three-crew flight in history. The three-man crew apparently requested an extension but were refused by Korolyov, who quoted Shakespeare: “There are more things in heaven and Earth, Horatio…” At the time, no one knew the name of the chief designer, who had one more spacecraft to design before he succumbed to ill health in January 1966.
Milestones
13th manned space flight
7th Soviet manned space flight
7th Vostok manned flight
1st Voskhod manned variant flight
1st three-person crew
1st flight by crew without spacesuits
1st flight with no launch escape or ejection system
1st Soviet space flight to end with crew inside spacecraft
1st space flight with non-pilot, civilian crew
1965-022A
18 March 1965
Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
19 March 1965
180 km northeast of Perm, Siberia
R7 (11A57); spacecraft serial number (11F63/3KD) #4
1 day 2hrs 2 min 17 sec
Almaz (Diamond)
First Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA – spacewalk) demonstration
Flight Crew
BELYAYEV, Pavel Ivanovich, 39, Soviet Air Force, commander LEONOV, Alexei Arkhipovich, 30, Soviet Air Force, pilot
Flight Log
The second of a planned series of multi-crew Voskhod missions got underway at 12: 00 Baikonur time, entering a 65° inclination orbit with the highest manned apogee to date of 495 km (308 miles). Instead of three crewmen without spacesuits, there were two, this time suitably attired. This Voskhod had been reconfigured to carry a telescopic airlock leading from the crew cabin. The space where the third seat had been was left free to give one of the crewmen, Alexei Leonov, the room in which to don an emergency oxygen backpack and connect an umbilical air and communications tether to his spacesuit, before crawling through the airlock after the spacecraft had been depressurised.
The first walk into open space began at the start of the second orbit of Voskhod, as Leonov emerged from the airlock at the end of his 5 m (16 ft) tether, watched by two television and film cameras attached to the end of the airlock and on top of the backup retro-rocket. Leonov cavorted in space doing cartwheels, not for show but because he was essentially out of control as his umbilical snaked around. His official free spacewalk lasted 12 minutes 9 seconds, but he was in the vacuum environment for about 20 minutes, since he couldn’t get back into the airlock. His spacesuit had ballooned more than anticipated and he had to squeeze himself back into the airlock quite forcibly before closing the hatch and re-pressurising the spacecraft.
Unfortunately, he forgot to retrieve the film camera which would have shown clear photos of the EVA rather than the blurred and fuzzy television reproductions. Nonetheless, Leonov’s exploits had a dramatic effect on the watching world, capturing more headlines than Gagarin himself, and this mission was one of the highlights of the “Space Age’’ of the 1960s. The rest of the flight went quietly until they
The first “walk” in space
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attempted retro-fire at the end of the seventeenth orbit. The prime retro-rocket in the instrument module of Voskhod failed to fire because of a sensor attitude control malfunction.
The cosmonauts made one more orbit as, not without a certain amount of drama, preparations were made to fire the back-up retro-pack on the next pass. The instrument section was apparently jettisoned (again not cleanly) before this, and the Voskhod spherical flight cabin was manually orientated by Belyayev, who punched the retro-pack arming device. The re-entry was quite dramatic and the capsule naturally missed the main recovery area by 960 km (597 miles), landing in the thick, snow – covered forest near the city of Perm. A damaged telemetry antenna made it impossible for the rescue teams to locate the craft, so the cosmonauts put their emergency landing training into effect, lighting a fire and waiting for rescue. However, ravenous wolves compelled their return to the capsule and it was two and a half hours before a helicopter spotted the capsule, thanks to the parachutes which were splayed out across the tree tops. Ground vehicles rescued the crew after they had spent a night in the forest.
Observers in the west, expecting a landing announcement to be made at the end of the seventeenth orbit, suspected that something was wrong and were only told of the touchdown when the crew had been located, four hours later. The drama of
the landing events was only fully revealed a year later, rather perversely, after the emergency US landing of Gemini 8. Flight time was 1 day 2 hours 2 minutes 17 seconds. This proved to be the last Voskhod manned mission. There had originally been plans for a series of at least seven manned Voskhod flights. Voskhod 3 was to have been a two-man 15-20-day extended scientific mission, and then Voskhod 4 would have flown a 15-day biomedical mission with a cosmonaut doctor in the crew. Voskhod 5 would be an all female crew with an EVA, Voskhod 6 was a 14-day EVA mission featuring the use of a small manoeuvring unit, and Voskhod 7 would attempt tether dynamics with the spent upper stage before flying a 10-15 day mission. There was also a plan to include a professional Soviet journalist on board a Voskhod but all these flights were cancelled.
Milestones
14th manned space flight
8th Soviet manned space flight
8th Vostok manned flight
2nd Voskhod manned variant flight
1st manned space flight with two crew
1st space flight with EVA operations
1st extended mission
Flight Crew
GRISSOM, Virgil Ivan “Gus”, 39, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Mercury-Redstone 4 (1961)
YOUNG, John Watts, 35, USN, pilot
Flight Log
Project Gemini was born as the logical follow-on to the Mercury programme, but its raison d’itre was changed by President Kennedy’s pledge to land a man on the Moon before 1970. Gemini was to act as the testing ground for all the manoeuvres and operations to be performed on an Apollo mission, but in Earth orbit – orbital manoeuvring, rendezvous, docking, extended flights and spacewalking. The task of Gemini 3 was straightforward: with the aid of the first computer on a manned spacecraft, Gemini 3 would change its orbit.
The crew was chosen at the time of the Gemini 1 unmanned test flight and was well into training by the time unmanned Gemini 2 had become the first to be recovered. Command pilot Gus Grissom and his pilot John Young, the Taciturn Twins as they were dubbed, were overshadowed by the exploits of Voskhod 2 five days earlier, particularly as Gemini 3 was to make only a modest three orbits. The crew were lying in their ejector seats inside Gemini 3 at 07: 30 hrs, waiting for a 09: 00 hrs launch. At T — 35 minutes, the Titan II first-stage oxidiser line sprang a leak and a handy wrench was required, delaying the launch by 24 minutes. The hypergolic engines of the Titan gave out a high-pitched whine and sprang to life and the mission lifted off.
As the second stage ignited while still attached to the first stage, its exhaust spewing out of the lattice framework between the two, the rocket was surrounded by a bright aurora, disconcerting the pilot. After reaching the 32.5°, 224km (139 miles) peak apogee orbit, the crew was immediately assigned to a series of science
Young (left) and Grissom aboard Gemini 3
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experiments, including a sea urchin cell growth experiment, which failed because Grissom was rather heavy-handed with it.
At last, the frustrated astronauts had some real space flying to do as, at T + 1 hour 30 minutes, Grissom performed the first orbital manoeuvring system burn, for 75 seconds. Two more burns followed, with the last placing Gemini 3’s perigee at 72 km (45 miles), low enough to ensure re-entry even if the retros failed to fire, which they didn’t. Grissom tried to use Gemini’s lift capability to reduce a predicted landing miss but the capability of the spacecraft was less than anticipated and resulted in a 111 km (69 miles) miss. As Gemini assumed splashdown position, it literally yanked from vertical to an almost horizontal position, pitching the crew forward and smashing Grissom’s faceplate against the instrument panel.
The flight ended near Grand Turk Island in the Atlantic Ocean at T + 4 hours 52 minutes 51 seconds, the shortest US two-crew mission. The landing miss meant a long wait in heaving seas but Grissom – remembering Liberty Bell – elected to stay on board with the hatch well and truly closed. Grissom lost his pre-launch breakfast and both doffed their spacesuits in the heat. They later walked rather ignominiously along the deck of the carrier Intrepid, to which they had been helicoptered, in sporting underwear beneath bathrobes. After the Liberty Bell 7 incident, Grissom named his next space craft “Molly Brown’’ after the hit Broadway show “The Unsinkable Molly
Brown”. NASA was not happy about this and asked him to change the name, but when he indicated that his second choice was “Titanic” they relented. “Molly Brown” became the last named American spacecraft until Apollo 9 in March 1969.
Gemini 3 became known as the “corned beef sandwich flight”, when afterwards it was revealed that Young had been reprimanded for carrying food aboard and offering it to Grissom who, on taking a hefty bite, spread crumbs around the cabin. The prank was, not surprisingly, hatched by the back-up command pilot, Wally Schirra, who put the sandwich into Young’s spacesuit, but the joke got out of hand and became the subject of a Congressional inquiry. The cost of the sandwich, which Schirra had bought in Cocoa Beach, escalated, and it became known as the “$30 million sandwich’’.
Milestones
15th manned space flight 7th US manned space flight 1st Gemini manned flight
1st manned space flight to perform orbital manoeuvres
1st US two-man crew mission
1st flight by crewman on second mission
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