Category Space Ship One

Clean, dry air was used in the pneumatics to pressurize the actuators. The cabin was also pressurized with air. Each system had its own high-pressure bottle and a backup bottle. The feather, environmental control system (ECS), and reaction control system (RCS) each had a bottle A and bottle B. The initial pressure of these six bottles was 6,000 pounds per square inch (psi). Other systems also required pressurized air, but they fed off of these bottles. Electricity was provided by an array of lithium batteries.

SpaceShipOne was the first manned spacecraft to use a hybrid rocket engine, which is a cross between a liquid-fueled rocket engine and a solid – fueled rocket engine. Designed by Scaled Composites, it ran by using a combination of synthetic rubber and nitrous oxide. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

Flying at 115 knots and 47,300 feet (14,420 meters), Pete Siebold detached from White Knight. Shown at the controls of SpaceShipOne in figure 7.10, Siebold became the second test pilot to fly SpaceShipOne. Mike Melvill had flown all the previous manned test flights.

Although SpaceShipOne’s performance was really starting to become dialed in, there was no shortage of work to do. Untested controls and the modified horizontal stabilizers needed evaluation— all this while Siebold learned how SpaceShipOne flew outside of the realm of the simulator. Figure 7.11 shows small strings attached to the horizontal stabilizer. With one free end, these strings helped the engineers identify how the air flowed over its surfaces.

Before Siebold completed the glide flight, he had to work on a new landing procedure that he and Binnie had been devising in order to improve reliability. “We had both very short, almost didn’t make it to the runway, and very long, almost off the end of the runway, landing excursions,” Doug Shane said.

Although SpaceShipOne glided okay, it didn’t have anywhere near the performance or control of a sailplane effortlessly gliding upward on the tops of thermals. The procedure involved overflying the run­way and hitting altitude waypoints while being able to accommodate coming into the approach too high or too low. After 19 minutes and 55 seconds in the air, SpaceShipOne landed at the intended aim-point.

Flight Test Log Excerpt for 8G

Date: 14 November 2003

SpaceShipOne White Knight

Objective: The fifth glide flight of SpaceShipOne. New pilot checkout flight. Stability and control testing with the new extended horizontal tails. Tests included stall performance at aft limit CG and evaluation of the increased pitch and roll control authority. Other objectives included additional testing of the motor controller (MCS) and handling qualities in feathered flight.

(source: Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, provided courtesy of Scaled Composites)

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Fig. 7.11. During Pete Siebold’s first flight, he had to evaluate additional modifications to the horizontal

stabilizers put in place to rectify handling issues revealed two flights earlier. Small strings attached to the newly enlarged horizontal stabilizers were used to help analyze the air flow. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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Fig. 7.12. Mike Melvill returned to the pilot’s seat for the ninth flight, which was the sixth glide flight of SpaceShipOne. In the photograph, Melvill pulls a handle to his left to deploy the feather for additional evaluation. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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Fig. 7.13. An abort while fully fueled was a very big concern for Scaled Composites because

of the heavy weight for landing. Even when testing SpaceShipOne’s performance with ballast to more closely match the weight of a fully fueled rocket engine, it was necessary to dump the ballast prior to landing. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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Fig. 7.14. Among the biggest surprises to Scaled Composites was the difficultly of landing SpaceShipOne without undershooting or overshooting the runway. The test pilot had to manage the airspeed and altitude very carefully on approach to the runway for landing. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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Flight Test Log Excerpt for 9G

Date: 19 November 2003

Flight Number Pilot/Flight Engineer

SpaceShipOne 9G Mike Melvill

White Knight 41L Brian Binnie/Cory Bird

Objective: The sixth glide flight of SpaceShipOne. Test pilot Mike Melvill’s first flight with the enlarged tails. Emergency aft CG handling qualities eval and simulated landing exercise with the new tail configuration. Airspeed and g envelope expansion and dynamic feather evaluation.

Scaled Composites received about $25 million from Paul Allen for twenty tasks that Burt Rutan had specifically outlined, which covered
building SpaceShipOne all the way through competing with it. “Task 21 was that we would fly SpaceShipOne every Tuesday for five months, reasoning that if we did that you could then make with confidence a commercial business plan,” Rutan said.

But Task 21 wasn’t funded. Rutan figured that once he got the data on the real costs of flying SpaceShipOne, he would then approach Allen. “That would be the opportunity for Paul and me and both of our friends to be astronauts,” Rutan explained. “If you just count only the passengers, you’ve got forty-four people. So, maybe twenty of my friends could be astronauts and twenty of his friends could be astro­nauts. That would be kind of cool. That was the plan. But something got in the way of the plan. I underestimated the impact of SpaceShipOne on the media and the public, and I underestimated its effect on historians.”

Shortly after Melvill flew SpaceShipOne into space the first time, Rutan received a letter from Valerie Neal, the curator of post-Apollo human spaceflight for the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum. “It was clear to all of us right away once Mike Melvill had made the first flight in June that this was a remarkable achievement, whether or not it won the Ansar і X Prize,” Neal said.

“We think that SpaceShipOne either itself may prove to be the pivotal craft that leads to a commercial spaceflight space-tourism industry, or it’s the leading edge of that. You know there are enough developments going on right now. It looks as if this is the cusp of a new revolution in spaceflight.”

So, the National Air and Space Museum expressed its interest in acquiring SpaceShipOne to join it with other remarkable vehicles in the Milestones of Flight gallery, which includes the original 1903 Wright Flyer, Spirit of St. Louis, and the Bell X-l that broke the sound barrier, Glamorous Glennis. But the National Air and

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Fig. 10.11. When SpaceShipOne made it first spaceflight on June 21,2004, the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution immediately recognized the significance of the event. By becoming the first non­governmental, privately funded vehicle to reach space, SpaceShipOne earned a place in the Milestones of Flight gallery with the Spirit of St. Louis, Bell X-1, 1903 Wright Flyer, and Apollo 11 command module Columbia.

Courtesy of Virgin Galactic

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Fig. 10.10. On June 27, 2005, Burt and Tonya Rutan, in SpaceShipOne, and Mike and Sally Melvill, in White Knight, landed at Oshkosh, Wisconsin, for the Experimental Aircraft Association’s (EAA) 2005 AirVenture. An active EAA member, Burt Rutan introduced the VariViggen, the first aircraft he designed and built, at the 1972 AirVenture. Now he and Melvill, also a longtime EAA member, gave a special showing of SpaceShipOne and White Knight to many of their closest supporters. Tyson V. Rininger

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Space Museum didn’t realize the extent to which Allen was involved. Rutan said that he would have to bring Allen into the dialog as well.

“So,” Neal recalled, “it was right at the end of November or early December when Allen and Rutan both said, ‘Yeah, we’re really interested

in donating this to the museum. Come on out and let’s talk and let’s have a look at it together.’”

Rutan had to face a tough decision. He explained, “When we got that request, Paul Allen called and said, ‘Listen, I don’t want you to fly it anymore. Just get the X Prize. Two more flights and

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Fig. 10.12. Carrying a small piece of SpaceShipOne, the space probe New Horizons, launched in 2006, races to the edge of the Solar System. The first mission ever to the dwarf planet Pluto, it will arrive in 2015. NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory-Southwest Research Institute

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that’s it.’ We had three or four motors, so we could have easily flown one more flight. My first thought was to fight with him. I said, ‘No, you’ve got to prove a business plan. If this is going to go on to the next step, you got to do this.’ And then I realized that he really was right.”

Preserving the legacy was more important.

Valerie Neal recalled, “What I had asked Rutan to do before he delivered it to us was to return it to its June configuration. After that June flight, before the X Prize flights, quite a number of decals were added to it, and the Virgin Galactic logo was added to it. And the appearance was considerably different.”

Even the dent in the engine fairing from that flight was put back. That’s how seriously Scaled Composites took her request. So, right after SpaceShipOne was hung in the museum, the damage drew some quick notice. “The director of the museum came in and said, ‘I hope we didn’t do that last night.’ And I said, ‘No, no, it came that way,’” Neal said.

However, even before being transferred to the museum, Rutan wanted to fly White Knight and SpaceShipOne to Oshkosh. He wanted to do something special for the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), which had stood by him from the time of his very first aircraft. With Mike Melvill behind the stick of White Knight and SpaceShipOne attached below, he flew from Mojave but stopped right before reaching the air show in Madison, Wisconsin, to pick up some very important passengers. Burt Rutan and his wife, Tonya, climbed into SpaceShipOne, while Sally Melvill joined her husband in White Knight.

They touched down at Oshkosh on June 27, 2005. “It was very emotional because it was like a homecoming for the triumphant sol­dier,” said Tom Poberezny, president of EAA. “And here was Burt coming home to an audience that truly appreciated what he did because they’ve grown up with him. They’ve appreciated every design innovation he has ever done, his successes, his failures, his trials, his tribulations.”

Figure 10.10 shows the EAA crowd gathered around SpaceShipOne andWhite Knight.

When the air show ended, Melvill took off with a small crew to head for Dulles Airport in Washington, D. C., after first stopping over in Dayton, Ohio, the hometown of the Wright brothers. But the adventure was far from over. White Knight doesn’t have very long legs. Its range is only about 500 miles (800 kilometers). When it reached

Dulles Airport, someone must have noticed White Knight carrying a missile-like object. “So, they turned us around and drove us away right in the middle of the approach,” Mike Melvill said.

“I said, ‘If you turn us around, we will run out of gas.’ And the air – traffic controller said, ‘I don’t care. Make a one-eighty and get out of here. I don’t want to see you again.’ And I said, ‘You need to get your supervisor because this has all been pre-briefed.’ Pretty soon the airline guys on the same frequency were saying, ‘Hey, come on. This is the guy delivering SpaceShipOne to the National Air and Space Museum.’”

Even after arrangements had been made with the airport and with the officials from the National Air and Space Museum on the ground, Melvill was denied. But he could always be counted on when the situation did not go exactly as planned. With almost no gas, he was able to land on a runway that wasn’t being used by the airlines. After detaching SpaceShipOne from White Knight and spending about an hour on the ground, Melvill lifted off in White Knight. The mothership had left its baby for good. Figure 10.11 shows SpaceShipOne in the Milestones of Flight gallery after the donation ceremony on October 5, 2005, hanging next to Spirit of St. Louis and Glamorous Glennis.

Although SpaceShipOne’s mission was suborbital spaceflight, it was actually able to completely break away from Earth’s gravitational pull. In 2007, a small piece of SpaceShipOne, aboard the space probe New Horizons, zipped by Jupiter on its way to a rendezvous with Pluto and its moon Charon. It will then continue on further to the edge of the Solar System into the mysterious Kuiper Belt, a region of space responsible for the demotion of Pluto from a planet to a dwarf plan­et after the discovery of a tenth planet. Launched in 2006, this is the first mission aimed at exploring these celestial objects. Figure 10.10 shows a conceptual drawing of the space probe on its journey.

In June of 2015, New Horizons and the SpaceShipOne fragment will have completed the interplanetary cruise phase on the way to Pluto. Earth will be 3.06 billion miles (4.92 billion kilometers) away when the closest approach occurs. Eleven years earlier, to the month, SpaceShipOne had first entered space, giving real hope to those with dreams of floating free in space.

A character in Clarke’s 2010: Odyssey Two, in summarizing what he expected from an upcoming space trip, simply stated, “Something wonderful.” By the time New Horizons actually reaches Pluto, that phrase will be invoked many times thanks to the accomplishments of commercial space travel that are to come.

A: SpaceShipOne Flight Data

Date Intended Mission SpaceShipOne Flight Pilot/ Flight Flight No.<2) Pilot Flight Time {minutes} Release Altitude (feet (meters)} Release Speed {knots} Top Speed {Mach}<b> Rocket Burn {seconds} Shutdown Altitude {feet (meters)} Apogee {feet (meters)} Maximum g-Force {G}<b> No.(2> Flight Engineer 1 ime {hours} 5/20/03 Captive Carry 01C 24C Pete Siebold/ Brian Binnie 1.8 7/29/03 Captive Carry 02C Mike Melvill 29C Brian Binnie/ Cory Bird 2.1 8/7/03 Captive Carry 03G Mike Melvill 19.00 47,000 (14,330) 105 30L Brian Binnie/ Cory Bird 1.1 8/27/03 Glided) 04GC Mike Melvill 31LC Brian Binnie/ Cory Bird 1.1 8/27/03 Glide 05G Mike Melvill 10.50 48,200 (14,690) 105 32L Brian Binnie/ Cory Bird 1.1 9/23/03 Glide 06G Mike Melvill 12.25 46,800 (14,270) 115 37L Pete Siebold/ Matt Stinemetze and Jeff Johnson 1.5 10/17/03 Glide 07G Mike Melvill 17.82 46,200 (14,080) 115 38L Pete Siebold/ Cory Bird and David Moore 1.1 11/14/03 Glide 08G Pete Siebold 19.92 47,300 (14,420) 115 40L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.4 11/19/03 Glide 09G Mike Melvill 12.42 48,300 (14,720) 115 41L Brian Binnie/ Cory Bird 2.1 12/4/03 Glide 10G Brian Binnie 13.23 48,400 (14,750) 115 42L Pete Siebold/ Matt Stinemetze 1.3 12/17/03 Powered 11P Brian Binnie 18.17 47,900 (14,600) 112 1.2 15 (d) 67,800 (20,670) 3+ 43L Pete Siebold/ Cory Bird 1.2 3/11/04 Glide 12G Pete Siebold 18.50 48,500 (14,780) 125 49L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.3 4/8/04 Powered 13P Pete Siebold 16.45 45,600 (13,900) 125 1.6 40 (d) 105,000 (32,000) (d) 53L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.3 5/13/04 Powered 14P Mike Melvill 20.73 46,000 (14,020) 120 2.5 55 150,000 (45,720) 211,400 (64,430) 3.5 56L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.5 6/21/04 Powered 15P Mike Melvill 24.08 47,000 (14,330) (d) 2.9 76 180,000 (54,860) 328,491 (100,124) 5.0 60L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.6 9/29/04 Powered 16P (XI) Mike Melvill 24.00 46,500 (14,170) (d) 3.0 77 180,000 (54,860) 337,00 (102,900) 5.1 65L Brian Binnie/ Matt Stinemetze 1.6 10/4/04 Powered 17P (X2) Brian Binnie 24.00 47,000 (14,360) (d) 3.25 84(e) 213,000 (64,920) 367,500 (112,00) 5.4 66L Mike Melvill/ Matt Stinemetze 1.6 (a) C, G, L, and P denote captive carry, glide, launch, and powered, respectively, for the intended missions of SpaceShipOne and White Knight. A second letter in the flight number indicates the actual mission if different than the intended mission. (b) The highest value is given whether occurring during boost or reentry. (c) Flight aborted prior to SpaceShipOne separation from White Knight, so SpaceShipOne was not released. (d) Data not reported in Combined White Knight/SpaceShipOne Flight Tests provided by Scaled Composites. (e) The value of 84 seconds is used based upon the transcript of 17P.

В: Chase Plane Crews

pacecraft have used both solid and liquid rockets, and in some cases both, to blast out of the atmosphere, into orbit, to the Moon, and out of the Solar System. The Space Shuttle, for example, uses two solid rocket boosters (SRB) mounted to the external tank (ET) and its three liquid-fueled main engines to reach orbit.

SpaceShipOne had a much different set of challenges to face, so its rocket engine had to be equally unique. There was no off-the-shelf rocket engine that Scaled Composites could simply install. Rutan had to design the rocket engine from scratch. It would be the first that Scaled Composites would have to build. Once the design was complete, Sealed Composites enlisted four subcontractors to provide the rocket-engine components that were not built in-house.

SpaceShipOne would be the first manned spacecraft to use a hybrid rocket engine. Figure 5.1 shows an external view of SpaceShipOne’s hybrid rocket engine.

The Rocket Engine

In 1999, Scaled Composites began researching rocket-engine technology. By January of 2000, it had not only identified the type of rocket engine and selected the propellants, but it had developed a new concept for its configuration.

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Fig. 5.1. A hybrid rocket engine offers advantages of both liquid-fueled and solid-fueled rocket engines. The rocket engine can be shut off at any time during the burn and can be constructed without complicated plumbing and pumps. The disadvantage, though, is that it has lower performance than the other two types. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rutan believed that the highest risk of the program from the technical stance was the operation of the rocket engine. Reentry was dangerous, of course, but the “carefree” approach using the feather dramatically minimized this danger.

“I ruled out solids because I couldn’t do flight tests with them,” Rutan said. “I couldn’t do flight-test envelope expansion. I couldn’t do partial burns. Also, I knew that likely during a burn, I might be accelerating into a Mach number that I’d never been to. And I may not like it. I wanted to be able at any time to shut the motor off just like that.

“I ruled out liquids because they had a large number of failure points that were difficult to improve safely by making them all redundant. If you did, you ended up with a complex system, which historically has been shown to be less safe than not having the redundancy.”

A hybrid rocket engine fit Rutan’s requirements. It was very safe and very simple and very robust. Just as the name suggests, a hybrid
rocket engine is part liquid rocket engine (like the Space Shuttle’s main engines) and part solid rocket engine (like the Space Shuttle’s solid rocket boosters). Figure 5.2 shows the basic designs of liquid, solid, and hybrid rocket engines.

Essentially, a hybrid rocket engine is a tank that contains the liquid part and a motor that contains the solid part. Upon ignition, the liquid flows into the motor and out come the flames. It can be stopped instantly, unlike a solid, and its propellants are room temper­ature as opposed to cryogenic. However, there is a tradeoff. Hybrid rocket engines are typically less efficient than liquid or solid rocket engines. This means that for equal amounts of propellant by mass, hybrids deliver less thrust. But in the case of SpaceShipOne, the lower performance was acceptable.

“Would I use a hybrid motor to go to orbit? Probably not unless we could develop one that was close to the efficiency of the liquids,” Rutan said.

Liquid Rocket Engine

Fuel Pumps Throat

Oxidizer

Solid Rocket Engine

Melvill continued to expand the flight envelope and to test the feather. Figure 7.12 shows him inside the cockpit pulling the feather control. But he had another important task to complete.

All this flight testing was really aimed at one goal: SpaceShipOne flying a spaceflight. So, every step along the way had to accomplish something that would bring that goal just a little bit closer. But this also meant that contingencies had to be worked out. “Probably the biggest fear we had for every flight was having to abort,” Doug Shane said about the rocket-powered flights.

Scaled Composites had very good confidence in how SpaceShipOne flew by this point. And after an extensive rocket-engine test program on the ground, they also had a good feeling about the rocket engine. So, Scaled Composites felt a safety incident was not likely to result from flying SpaceShipOne or firing the rocket engine. But an abort during a test flight was much more plausible, considering one had already occurred.

If SpaceShipOne aborted while full of fuel and oxidizer, then this would be much too much weight for it to handle during landing. “You

Fig. 7.15. The photograph shows Brian Binnie preparing right before his first time flying SpaceShipOne. This would be the last glide flight prior to the start of SpaceShipOne’s rocket – powered test flights. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

have to actually dump nitrous to get rid of about 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilograms) of mass. But you couldn’t deal with the rubber in the rocker motor,” Shane said.

For this test flight, Melvill evaluated the emergency handling and landing characteristics. Figure 7.13 shows SpaceShipOne dumping the ballast, which it used to alter the CG during testing. Additional mod­ifications were also made to the landing procedures, and figure 7.14 shows SpaceShipOne’s smooth touchdown.

The force that causes a rocket engine’s thrust results from combus­tion. This type of chemical reaction is similar to burning wood. The wood, which is a fuel, and the air, which is an oxidizer, react to form gases and other substances. Both the fuel and oxidizer must be present for combustion to occur.

The difference with a rocket engine is that the fuel and the oxi­dizer release much higher energy, and the gases from the reaction travel out of the nozzle at very high speeds. These high-speed gases provide the thrust.

Each Space Shuttle SRB contains 1,100,000 pounds (500,000 kilograms) of solid propellant, 70 percent ammonium perchlorate for its oxidizer and 16 percent aluminum powder for its fuel. The balance consists of binders, curing agents, and catalysts. These burn until there is nothing left to burn. The liquid propellants are contained in separate pressurized tanks within the ET. These tanks hold 1,350,000 pounds (612,000 kilograms) of liquid oxygen oxidizer, often called LOX, and 227,800 pounds (103,000 kilograms) of liquid hydrogen fuel. The main engines produce thrust when the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen are pumped together.

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Fig. 5.3. To reach orbit, the Space Shuttle uses three liquid-fueled rocket engines, the shuttle main engines (SME) at the rear of the orbiter and two solid rocket boosters (SRB), which are attached to the external tank (ET). Dan Linehan

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SpaceShipOne is a tiny fraction of the Space Shuttle’s mass, and it reaches less than a third of the height the Space Shuttles does. So, the propellant requirements are quite different. SpaceShipOne used nitrous oxide (N20), a colorless liquid or gas naturally occurring in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is commonly used as laughing gas, as a hot rod fuel additive for a quick boost of speed, and as a propellant for whipped cream. The N20 is liquefied and used as the oxidizer. The oxidizer enables the fuel to burn at a near-explosive rate. The oxidizer tank contains 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilograms) of N20.

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Fig. 5.4. When the oxidizer and the fuel combine, a vigorous chemical

reaction takes place. The very hot gases from this combustion produce the thrust and resulting fiery plume. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photo provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) is the solid used for the fuel and is a synthetic rubber, like that used to make tires. About 600 pounds (270 kilograms) fuel the rocket engine. Both the oxidizer and the fuel can easily and safely be stored and transported. In fact, unlike liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which react together spon­taneously, N20 and HTPB will not react together unless an igniter is first used. For the reaction to occur, the temperature must be greater than 570 degrees Fahrenheit.

The combustion products from the combination of N20 and HTPB are mostly carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and water vapor. This is not as clean burning as the Space Shuttle’s main engines but is much less polluting than the Space Shuttle’s solid rocket boosters, which produce a giant, toxic acid cloud. Figure 5.3 and figure 5.4 show the rocket engines of the Space Shuttle and SpaceShipOne firing, respectively.

The rocket engine had been qualified only a few weeks previously and was ready to make its debut. Test flight 10G would be the last glide flight before attempting to light off the rocket engine with SpaceShipOne. Figure 7. IS shows Brian Binnie readying himself for his first flight in SpaceShipOne, and figure 7.16 shows flight engineer Matt Stinemetze making preparations in White Knight right before takeoff.

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Flight Test Log Excerpt for 10G

Date: 4 December 2003

Flight Number Pilot/Flight Engineer

SpaceShipOne 10G Brian Binnie

White Knight 42L Pete Siebold/Matt Stinemetze

Objective: The seventh glide flight of SpaceShipOne and new pilot check out. Full functional check of the propulsion system by cold flowing nitrous oxide. Completed airspeed and positive and negative g-envelope expansion.

(source: Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, provided courtesy of Scaled Composites)

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Fig. 7.17. SpaceShipOne was released at a height of 48,400 feet (14,750 meters). This video­capture image shows SpaceShipOne and White Knight mated up just prior to separation. The contrails from White Knight’s turbojet engines can be seen trailing off in the background.

Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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Brian Binnie would now have a chance behind the control stick of SpaceShipOne. White Knight carried SpaceShipOne to the highest release altitude yet, 48,400 feet (14,750 meters). Figure 7.17 shows a close – up of SpaceShipOne attached to White Knight with the contrails from White Knight’s afterburners streamed away in the background.

A cold run of the rocket was performed. Binnie used all the controls and instruments for the rocket, including flowing the liquid N20 oxidizer
through the CTN (case/throat/nozzle) as if it were an actual rocket burn. However, without igniting the fuel, no combustion occurred.

After the successful cold run, Binnie turned his attention to com­pleting the airspeed and g-force envelope expansion. Binnie pushed SpaceShipOne the hardest so far, and when finished, he glided back to Mojave, as shown in figure 7.18, eager for the next phase of flight testing to begin.

Up to this point, the contrails in the air only came from the twin turbojets on White Knight After a total of ten unpowered flights, some captive carry and some glide, SpaceShipOne was ready to light its hybrid rocket engine for the first time in the sky. Tyson V. Rininger

Scaled Composites took what it described as an advanced all-composite design approach to building the rocket engine. “We did develop a new configuration of hybrid rocket motor,” Rutan said. “And we patented it. The patent is related to the fact that the whole motor cantilevers off the tank. And doesn’t require additional mounting and doesn’t build up stresses because of the temperature effects and the aerodynamic loads. It’s a key reason that this remains a very simple motor.

“During our development of the new hybrid rocket motor,” Rutan added, “Scaled contracted with four companies to provide components.” Most of the rocket engine was designed and developed in-house, though.

The two main parts of the rocket engine are the oxidizer tank and the integrated case/throat/nozzle (CTN), as shown in figure 5.5 and figure 5.6, respectively.

The oxidizer tank is a very important structural element of the rocket engine and SpaceShipOne as a whole. It is reusable and is bonded to the inside of the fuselage, all the way around, with an elastomeric

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Fig. 5.5. This oxidizer tank stored the liquid nitrous oxide (N20). After the tank was filled, it self pressurized, so a pump was not needed to inject the oxidizer into the fuel. The photo shows the inner liner of the oxidizer tank. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

compound. The bond is damage tolerant and isolates vibration, and because of the size of the bond area, the loading due to the force from the rocket engine is distributed over a large area.

The oxidizer tank has a fiberglass liner and two titanium interface flanges, fore and aft. After pressure testing the liner, Scaled Composites contracted Thiokol to provide a graphite/epoxy overwrap using a filament-wrap process, which can be seen in figure 5.7.

The CTN is mounted directly on the rear flange of the oxidizer tank with bolts and an О-ring seal (refer to figure 5.8).This cantilever mounting requires no other additional support, and, by design, reduces the number of potential leak paths.

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Fig. 5.6. The CTN (case/throat/nozzle) was a large composite casing

filled with synthetic rubber used as fuel. Once the rocket engine was ignited, the exhaust moved through the casing, was compressed by the throat, and then expelled out the nozzle. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by Scaled Composites

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Fig. 5.7. The oxidizer tank had a special composite overwrap that allowed it to contain the oxidizer at a high pressure of 750 pounds per

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Fig. 5.8. The CTN attached directly to the oxidizer tank. This photograph shows the mounting ring used to bolt it on. The hybrid design allowed the fuel and oxidizer to be very close together, which reduced the overall complexity of the rocket engine. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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The 22-inch – (56-centimeter-) diameter case of the CTN, where the combustion occurs, is essentially a hollow tube lined with the rubber fuel. The throat forced the hot exhaust gases, passing from the case to the nozzles, to converge. The nozzle accelerated the hot exhaust gases to provide even greater thrust. The silica/phenolic high-temperature insulating liner and mounting rings of the case were assembled together with the throat and nozzle using graphite/epoxy composite overwrap. The cantilevered mounting also provided the advantage of being able to vary the length and diameter of the CTN without design modifications.

A safety feature was built into the CTN to warn of an impending burn-through. If the fiber-optic cable sealed between the liner and the overwrap detected a breach in the liner, the flow of oxidizer would be cut off and the rocket engine shut down. As an additional precaution, wires wrapped around the outside of the CTN could also be used to detect a burn-through.

AAE Aerospace supplied an ablative nozzle with an expansion ratio of 25:1 for the CTN. The expansion ratio compares the size of the throat to the size of the nozzle’s opening. The efficiency is altitude dependent, so this ratio gave SpaceShipOne the maximum thrust at launch altitude. The interior of the nozzle eroded away as the rocket engine burned, which helped to minimize the temperature of the nozzle itself.

The entire CTN had to be replaced after each spaceflight.

Scaled Composites looked to outside vendors to supply the remaining components for the rocket engine, which included the injector, the igniter, and the related controls and plumbing. Scaled Composites held a competition of its own to build these components.

Rocket-Engine Competition

Simplicity of design by reducing the number of parts is best illus­trated by an experience Rutan had during his preliminary research into rocket-engine designs. Representatives of a rocket – engine vendor Rutan was visiting wanted to demonstrate how

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Fig. 5.9. At the front of the oxidizer tank are the fill, vent, and dump valves. The vent valve protects from over-pressurization, and the dump valve allows the tank to be drained in an emergency situation. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

their valve worked after showing him schematics and describing their engine design. They went out to the back of the building, where the valve was chilled with liquid nitrogen to a cryogenic operating temperature.

“The valve stuck,” Rutan said. “It didn’t work. It failed right there while I was looking at it.”

After they went back inside, he said to them, “Gentlemen, let me ask you, how many of those valves are in this motor?”

Twelve, they replied.

“Did you expect this to work today?” he asked.

There was no answer. Rutan knew enough about rocketry to know if there was such a thing as a simple one that operated at room temperature with one valve, that’s the one he wanted.

Rutan had been looking at more than twenty rocket-engine vendors. With the help of Tim Pickens, a bit of a maverick rocket expert, Rutan sketched up the design and passed it on. “I had sent them a sanitized requirement that didn’t divulge that we were doing manned flight. I said it was a reusable sounding rocket.”

Now, it was necessary to build the remaining engine components. In front of the oxidizer tank was the fill, vent, and dump system as well as the forward tank bulkhead. This was how the liquid nitrous oxide was added to the tank, how pressure was relieved in case of over-pressurization, and how the nitrous oxide could be drained in an emergency situation. These components were kept away from the hot side of the oxidizer tank to improve safety. The locations of these components are shown in figure 5.9.

Arguably the most critical valve of the whole project was the main control valve that supplied the oxidizer to the CTN. Without
the flow of nitrous oxide, there would be no rocket. So, this valve received special attention. Doug Shane cleverly named it the “oxy – no-more-on” valve. Connected to the oxy-no-more-on valve was the injector, which was essentially a showerhead that sprayed the liquid nitrous oxide into the CTN. Both the oxy-no-more-on valve and the injector were located inside the oxidizer tank. What this did was further reduce plumbing and had the added benefit of keeping these components at a constant temperature, which also simplified things. Figure 5.10 shows their positions from a rear view of the oxidizer tank.

The rear tank bulkhead, motor controller, head insulation, and igniter still needed to be built as well. The igniter was the heat source that initiated the reaction between the oxidizer and rubber fuel. The last part that remained was the actual rubber fuel itself, which had to be packed into the CTN.

From the list of more than twenty potential rocket-engine vendors, it came down to two: Environmental Aeroscience Corporation (eAc), of Miami, Florida, and SpaceDev, of Poway, California. This wasn’t a low-bid process. It was performance-based, and the competition would go back and forth. Rutan thought that having just one vendor try to make the last of the components was too much of a risk. “When you sole source, if they stumble, you have to pay them to pick up,” Rutan said. “If you’ve got two of them competing and they stumble, they spend their own money to catch up. That’s what the big ‘C’-word is—competition. And that happened. They both wanted to fly.”

In the middle of 2001, both vendors began to participate in a ground-test program that included cold flow tests, where the oxi­dizer and fuel weren’t ignited, as well as partial – and full-duration

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Fig. 5.10. The CTN mounted on a titanium flange at the rear of the oxidizer tank. Located inside the tank was the main control valve, also known as the "oxy-no-more-on" valve, that released the oxidizer into the CTN. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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Fig. 5.11. The test stand trailer (TST) was used during the rocket – engine test firings. It contained all of the same components and systems to be used in SpaceShipOne, including an oxidizer tank that the CTNs were mounted onto. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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Fig. 5.12. To fill SpaceShipOne or the TST with the oxidizer, nitrous oxide (N20), Scaled Composites used a special tanker truck called the mobile nitrous oxide delivery system (MONODS). Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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hot-firings. All rocket engine testing employed the same type of compo­nents used in SpaceShipOne. Shaking out the full-scale designs on the ground at a Scaled Composites test site rather than in flight was a much more preferable way to address the “ups”—break up, burn up, and blow up.

In terms of experience, eAc had built a lot of hybrid rocket engines and had run some with diameters of up to 16 inches (41 centimeters). SpaceDev, on the other hand, had only run little hybrids with 15 pounds-force (67 newtons) of thrust.

This meant eAc was off to a quick lead. By June of 2002, the first set of results came in. Scaled Composites selected eAc as the supplier of the front-end propulsion components. However, both vendors continued to develop the remaining rocket-engine components.

To run all the rocket-engine tests, the test stand trailer (TST), a partial, operational mockup of SpaceShipOne shown in figure 5.11, acted as a portable test bed. It comprised the complete rocket engine, including the CTN and oxidizer tank, and the forward section of the fuselage. The TST provided instrumentation to analyze vibration, temperature, and stress conditions that the flight components would face during spaceflight. It also had load cells, which were sensors mounted on the trailer, that allowed engineers to evaluate the rocket – engine performance.

Setup for rocket-engine tests typically took several days. Since the TST was mobile, preparations began inside a hangar at Scaled Composites. Once the CTN was in place and all the other com­ponents were hooked up, the TST was towed out to the firing range. Figure 5.12 shows the specialized tanker truck called the mobile nitrous oxide delivery system (MONODS) that then fills the oxidizer tank.

Mission Control ran the rocket-engine tests remotely, and an under­ground computer near the TST collected and transmitted live data. The countdown procedures for the ground testing are listed in table 5.1.

Since testing occurred on the ground, a nozzle with an expansion ratio of 10:1 was used, as opposed to 25:1 used for actual flights.

SpaceDev had fired first, a 15-second burn on November 21, 2002. The rocket roar was deafening for each hot-fire of the rocket engine. The ground shook. Figure 5.13 shows the tip of a fiery plume stretched out more than thirty feet, scorching the ground and sending smoke billowing across the desert.

“The SpaceDev motor was the only one that had a critical safety issue. In the first round, a valve wouldn’t close and it keep burning and burning,” Rutan said. Although Scaled Composites was slow to extinguish the fire, no significant damage occurred.

After more than nine months of firing rocket engines, the gap between eAc and SpaceDev had disappeared. Each had little differences. For example, SpaceDev used four ports to flow the oxidizer into the CTN, whereas eAc used just one, and they each had a proprietary rubber fuel and system for refueling the CTN. But both had exceeded performance expectations.

With the exception of the fire caused by a stuck valve at the very onset of test firing, the hybrid rocket engine demonstrated safety and reliability. The cantilever mounting concept proved structurally sound, the oxidizer and CTN performed as designed, and the “ups” were avoided altogether.

Scaled Composites had both companies commit prices for compo­nents, not only for the upcoming flight test and Ansari X Prize rocket engines, but for twenty-two other rocket engines slated for what was called Task 21, the spaceflights after the Ansari X Prize attempts.

T-48 hours Mounting the CTN

The fully fueled CTN (engine) and valve are mounted to the oxidizer tank using the mounting trolley. Alignment is checked and bolts are tightened to the specified tolerances.

T-36 hours Instrumentation and Integration

The motor controller, pressure bottles, actuation valves, and all the sensors are installed and tested on the test bed. New CTNs require new temperature and strain sensors, while CTNs being fired for the second or third time are "plug and play."

T-24 hours Moving Time

The test trailer with the fully fueled CTN (engine) is moved from Scaled’s hangar to the test site. There it is bolted down, final instrumentation is completed, and the system is connected to Mission Control.

T-4 hours Filling the Tank

Nitrous oxide is transferred from the MONODS to the oxidizer tank on the test trailer after it has been brought up to temperature and pressure. Temperatures and pressures must be carefully controlled to ensure a safe transfer.

T-0 hours The Final Countdown

After final system checks have been made, cameras have been started, and range safety has been checked, a quick countdown is called and the switch is thrown. The motor controller automatically ignites and fires the engine for a preprogrammed period of time.

“SpaceDev’s components were lighter, which helped our perform­ance,” Rutan said. “Keep in mind, we knew that we had to have really the best performance in order to win the X Prize because we had a weight growth. So, we needed all the performance we could get. SpaceDev’s components had a little more efficiency, on the order of three percent for the same weight of propellant.”

SpaceDev actually turned out to be cheaper, too—all characteristics Rutan was very fond of. In September of 2003, the development phase of SpaceShipOne’ s rocket engine was completed. SpaceDev got the nod.

Figure 5.14 shows a rocket engine installed in SpaceShipOne without the fairing in place, so the unsupported ended of the CTN is apparent.

caled Composites revealed SpaceShipOne to the public on April 18, 2003, but it had been running in secret for two years. On November 18, 2003, after about a year-long rocket-engine competition and seven glide flights, the hybrid rocket engine was qualified for flight testing in SpaceShipOne.

Flight testing is risky. Things go wrong as never-before-tested systems are evaluat­ed or new conditions are encountered. It is all part of the process of shaking the design out. It is like an artist making a sculpture of an airplane from a block of wood. At first it doesn’t look like anything, but slowly as pieces of wood are whittled away and form starts to take shape, little by little an airplane becomes more recognizable.

The process of flight testing is pretty much the same as testing other high-performance machines, whether it is a new racing sailboat or a new sports car. Nothing comes off the drawing board perfect. Flight testing is a flying laboratory. And as long as there are many more big steps moving forward than there are moving backward, good progress toward the goal is being made.

Scaled Composites attempted to become the first private company to go to space, yet the company had never even built an aircraft that broke the sound barrier. In fact, no private company had ever built an aircraft that broke the sound barrier as part of a non-governmental program.

The sound barrier, once thought impenetrable and its threshold guarded by demons, was smashed, along with the demons, by Chuck Yeager in the Bell X-l. Although this happened in 1947, the transition from subsonic to transonic to

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supersonic was still a dangerous one. Before SpaceShipOne reached past the boundary of Earth’s atmosphere, it would have to fly faster—several times faster—than the speed of sound.

“The powered flights were very different,” Mike Melvill said. “As a glider, it is completely silent, and there is no noise at all. You don’t have this overload of sensory audio. The audio side of your senses is really overloaded when the rocket motor starts. It’s very, very noisy. It vibrates a lot. It really shakes you around in the airplane. It’s a pretty exciting thing to do. The acceleration is enormous. You drop off the hooks and light the rocket motor. You get this enormous kick in your back. And right away, you turn the corner and point it straight up.”

Flying above Mach 1 was not the same as flying below Mach 1. Flying outside the atmosphere was not the same as flying within the atmosphere. And flying with a rocket engine was not the same as flying without a rocket engine.

Flight testing would now have to be taken up a few notches.

On November 18, 2003, Scaled Composites qualified a rocket engine in preparation for the first powered flight of SpaceShipOne.

“The nice thing about this particular type of hybrid motor is the nitrous oxide is room temperature in the oxidizer tank in front. It self-pressurizes to about 750 pounds per square inch,” Doug Shane
said. This eliminated the need for complicated and expensive pumps to flow the oxidizer into the CTN. In figure 5.15a panel on the belly of SpaceShipOne is removed, exposing the engine bay, so the CTN could be easily mounted.

The oxidizer tank was filled with liquid nitrous oxide through its forward bulkhead. The MONODS pumped the nitrous oxide at 300 pounds per square inch and 0 degrees Fahrenheit. To bring the temperature up to room temperature and maintain it there, engine bleed air from White Knight flowed into SpaceShipOne and was directed at both ends of the tank during captive carry.

The rocket engine of SpaceShipOne could only be fired once. After the rocket engine was armed and the fire switch thrown, the igniter produced a significant amount of heat, causing combustion between the oxidizer and fuel.

“SpaceShipOne does not have a throttle. It is on or off,” Rutan said. “There was no need for a throttle.”

For the spaceflights, the force of thrust was 16,800 pounds-force (74,730 newtons). However, because of performance concerns and

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Fig. 5.13. Scaled Composites was able to monitor the performance of each rocket engine tested during the development phase. Data collected by sensors on the TST was relayed to engineers real-time for analysis. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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Fig. 5.15. Between each spaceflight, it was necessary to replace the spent CTN with a fully fueled CTN. The spent CTN can be refurbished by refueling the rubber inside the casing and replacing the ablative nozzle. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by Scaled Composites

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Fig. 5.14. This photograph shows the rocket engine before the engine

fairing was attached. The cantilever rocket-engine design patented by Scaled Composites had the CTN fixed to the oxidizer tank at one end but completely unsecured at the nozzle end. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by Scaled Composites

V__________________________________________ J the additional payload required by the Ansari X Prize competition, additional nitrous oxide oxidizer and rubber fuel were added, as well as an increase in burn duration. The thrust and the specific impulse (I$p), a measure of efficiency of the rocket engine, were not officially released by Scaled Composites.

Peak performance occurred once the rocket engine ignited. As the rubber burned away and the oxidizer tank emptied, the amount of thrust gradually reduced.

About sixty seconds into the burn, the nitrous oxide began a transition from liquid to gas because there was more room in the oxidizer tank for it to expand, which caused a significant decrease in thrust. At this point, the combustion was uneven throughout the CTN and caused SpaceShipOne to chug along for about five seconds. The ride then smoothed out for the remainder of the burn now that the nitrous oxide had transformed to gas.

During the flight, the engine performance and parameters could be monitored in the cockpit by the pilot and on the ground in Mission Control.

SpaceShipOne Instruments and Controls

paceShipOne is part airplane, missile, spacecraft, and glider. Like the North American X-1S, it was flown by hand. Figure 6.1 shows SpaceShipOne during a glide test flight with its control surfaces clearly visible on the tail booms.

To complete each spaceflight mission, it had to transition between a variety of flight phases, including takeoff, captive carry, boost, coast, feather, glide, approach, and landing. Flying these phases, SpaceShipOne crossed between three distinct flight regimes: subsonic, supersonic, and zero-g. Different flight control systems were required to operate in each regime. A basic mechanical control system was used in subsonic flight, while an electric – powered control system and a reaction control system (RCS) were required in supersonic and zero-g flight, respectively.

SpaceShipOne had a set of instruments and controls for each flight control system that the pilot had to switch between. Figure 6.2 shows Mike Melvill in the cockpit holding the control stick of SpaceShipOne with the nose cone detached.

Subsonic Flight Control

SpaceShipOne essentially flew like a light airplane—some of the time anyway. It had a mechanical flight control system that operated manually, similar to that of a Cessna 172 or Piper Cub. A simple cable-and-rod linkage tied the stick and rudder pedals

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Fig. 6.1. SpaceShipOne was the first manned aircraft to use tail booms attached to the wingtips. Unlike almost every other aircraft, the wings had no control surfaces. The pilot maneuvered SpaceShipOne with control surfaces that were all located on the tail booms, an upper and lower rudder at the back of each tail boom, flying or movable horizontal stabilizers, and elevons at the trailing edge of each horizontal stabilizer. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by Scaled Composites

Fig. 6.2. With the nose cone detached, Mike Melvill gets some practice at the controls of SpaceShipOne as Steve Losey, the crew chief, looks on. SpaceShipOne had room for a pilot up front and two passengers in the back row. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, photograph by David M. Moore

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to the control surfaces. The connections between the pilot’s controls in the cockpit and the control surfaces are shown in figure 6.3. No hydraulics were used for flight control.

All of the control surfaces were located on the tail booms. An upper and lower rudder were mounted at the end of each tail boom. The rudder pedals in the cockpit moved the upper rudders for control of yaw. Refer to figure 6.4 for SpaceShipOne s flight axes and rotations. Each rudder pedal worked independently and deflected the corresponding upper rudder outward only. By depressing both, the upper rudders acted a little bit like a speed brake.

On the horizontal stabilizer, elevons combined the functions of conventional ailerons on the wings and elevators on the tail. The control

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Fig. 6.3. This diagram shows the different control systems and the linkages from the controls in the cockpit to the control surfaces. The reaction control system (RCS) and the landing gear are also shown in this cutaway. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, provided courtesy of Scaled Composites

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Fig. 6.4. Each of the three flight control systems allowed SpaceShipOne to maneuver along the flight axes. Pitch and roll were controlled by the elevons at subsonic speeds and by the movable horizontal stabilizers at supersonic speeds. The upper rudders and lower rudders controlled yaw at subsonic and supersonic speeds, respectively. RCS thrusters mounted on the wings and fuselage controlled pitch, roll, and yaw in space. James Linehan

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Fig. 6.5. At the trailing edge of each horizontal stabilizer was an elevon. When both elevons moved in the same direction, the pitch of SpaceShipOne changed. When moved differentially, roll changed. The photograph shows the poor airflow over a horizontal stabilizer during a stall test, as indicated by the small strings attached to the surface. Mojave Aerospace Ventures LLC, video capture provided courtesy of Discovery Channel and Vulcan Productions, Inc.

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stick moved the elevons, which allowed the pilot to control pitch and roll of SpaceShipOne. Figure 6.5 shows a horizontal stabilizer during testing after modification.