Category Manned Spaceflight Log II—2006-2012

There have also been studies into sending humans to the asteroids over the decades. More recently, serious thought has been given to making such journeys, possibly using Orion-class spacecraft. NASA has commenced a series of pioneer­ing simulations and evaluations for such a mission, which could be mounted towards the end of the 2020s. This work would be valuable for obvious scientific reasons: to gather a better understanding of these strange small worlds and to help plan both robotic and manned missions to Mars. If flown before manned flights to the Red Planet, these asteroid missions would be the farthest humans have ventured into space, with a proposed 1 yr round trip mission some 3 million miles

from Earth and a stay of up to 30 days at the chosen asteroid. Studies into working on the surface of these objects would prove invaluable if one is discov­ered to be on a colhsion course with Earth. Other reasons for visiting asteroids are similar to those for Mars, such as the potential for mining minerals or to use them as staging posts for expeditions to the outer reaches of the solar system.

Flight crew

JING Haipeng, 45, Chinese PLA Air Force, commander, second flight Previous mission: Shenzhou 7 (2008)

LIU Wang, 43, Chinese PLA Air Force, flight engineer LIU Yang, 34, Chinese PLA Air Force, flight engineer

Flight log

This mission came three years after Shenzhou 7 and provided China with a number of space “firsts” and a significant leap in manned space flight experience and operations. The primary objective was to place the first crew on board the inaugural space laboratory. There was also a female taikonaut in the crew, who became the first Chinese female in space. Launch of Shenzhou 9 occurred on the 49th anniversary of the launch of Valentina Tereshkova’s Vostok 6, the first to carry a female cosmonaut into space. Liu Yang’s entry into the record books also came two days before the 29th anniversary of Sally Ride becoming the first American woman in space, aboard STS-7. Liu Yang had been selected as a member of the second (2010) group of taikonauts.

Forecasts of the flight had been circulated for some time before the hardware was brought together to fly the mission. The Chinese had indicated as early as 2003 their desire to create a space laboratory, supplied by Shenzhou spacecraft. In the West, this seemed very reminiscent of the Soviet Soyuz-Salyut missions of 1971-1985. The Shenzhou 9 mission was part of a four-spacecraft program designed to provide the Chinese with experience in space station operations. First, the pre-fitted space laboratory, called Tiangong (“Heavenly Palace”), would be launched unmanned into Earth orbit. This would be followed by Shenzhou 8, also unmanned, which would test the docking system and docking port. Shenzhou 9

would then take the first crew to occupy Tiangong and, if successful, a second manned mission, Shenzhou 10, would complete the program.

The launch of Tiangong-1 (2011-053A) by the upgraded Long March 2F (Tl) occurred on September 29, 2011. Over the following month, the systems of the station were activated, evaluated, and tested prior to the launch of Shenzhou 8 (2011-063A), also by a Long March 2F (G), on October 31. The Shenzhou performed an automated docking on November 3 and remained docked with the station for structural integrity tests between the two docked vehicles over the next two weeks.

On November 14, Shenzhou 8 undocked, backed away, re-rendezvoused, and docked a second time with the station as a further test of the automated systems. Shenzhou 8 was undocked a second time on November 16 to complete a short solo flight and landing the next day after a flight of 18 days. These successful steps paved the way for the manned attempt at docking with Tiangong but, as the months slipped into 2012, little information was forthcoming other than that the crew may include a female. The delays caused some in the West to suggest that there were problems either with Shenzhou 8, the station, or in the preparations for Shenzhou 9. But this overlooked the cautious nature of the Chinese program and the absence of the “race” situation that was a prominent part of the early Soviet and American years.

Behind the scenes, preparations for Shenzhou 9 were well under way. The crew assignments were made in March 2012 but remained unannounced until just prior to launch, although many Western space sleuths were able to deduce the likely candidates ahead of the official announcements. The spacecraft assigned to the flight arrived at the Jinquan launch center for processing on April 9, and then the launch vehicle was delivered to the launch site a month later on May 9.

With typical Chinese efficiency, the combined spacecraft and launcher was rolled 1.5 km to the launchpad on June 9, in an operation that took one hour to complete. The sequence of previous missions suggested that a launch could occur sometime between June 14 and 16. The Chinese authorities confirmed this and indicated a planned mission of about 13 days, including an automated docking with Tiangong-1 and 10 days of joint operations, during which the three-person crew (still unidentified officially) would work inside the station. Towards the end of the mission, it was stated, the crew would conduct a manual docking test before final separation and a short solo flight, with reentry and landing the following day.

The three-day countdown began on June 13 and the names of the crew were formally announced in the days prior to launch, making headlines around the world. The launch on June 16 went flawlessly and it took only 9 minutes 45 seconds to place Shenzhou 9 in orbit to begin its 2-day chase towards Tiangong-1. On June 18, the spacecraft made its final approach to the station 140 minutes prior to the planned docking time. There had been five maneuvering bums to adjust the spacecraft’s orbit prior to start of the automated rendezvous. The approach and docking was fully automated, although Liu Wang was ready to take over manual control if necessary. The automated system worked perfectly, however, with preplanned holds at 5 km, 140 m, and 30 m. The docking system was very similar to the Androgynous Peripheral Attach System with two rings first used on Apollo-Soyuz in 1975. The docking between Shenzhou 9 and Tiangong-1 occurred on the second day after launch and was followed a short time later by the crew transferring across to the space laboratory.

During their stay on board the station, the trio rotated their sleeping cycle so that at least one crew member was awake at all times to monitor onboard systems. Most of their time was taken up with evaluations and tests of the new space station, including several small maneuvering engine burns. The science program of 10 experiments included five medical studies of the taikonauts’ own physical con­dition during China’s first extended duration space flight. A series of air samples were taken to evaluate the status and condition of the station and the crew also completed a series of questionnaires on their health and operational tasks. They were also able to communicate with the ground via email. Much was made of the Chinese food available, of their enjoying weightlessness, and of Liu Yang perform­ing tai chi for the cameras. At one point, Liu Wang played a harmonica and all three seemed to be adapting well to their new environment.

The medical experiments focused upon physical exercise, physiology, cell biology, and sleep studies. The air purification system and other onboard systems were also tested and evaluated. Tiangong-1 is the first of a scheduled three stations in the series, leading up to the launch of a larger station (about the size of the U. S. Skylab) due in 2020. These studies in Tiangong-1 will go a long way towards determining which procedures or equipment will be best suited for inclusion on those larger, longer duration stations.

Several celebrations were marked during the mission. On June 26, the crew held a conversation with President Hu Jintao. They also celebrated the Dragon Boat Festival and talked with the oceanauts on the Jiaolong submersible (named after a mythological sea dragon) 7,020 meters beneath the sea in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean, part of China’s Deep Dive program. The three taikonauts also had regular contact with family members, who visited Mission Control.

On June 24, the crew mothballed the station and reentered the Shenzhou to undock after 5 days 21 hours and 1 minute. They backed the Shenzhou away some 400 meters before bringing the vehicle back in under manual control. They halted again at 140 m and then 30 m before completing the first Chinese manual docking. The two craft were separate for about 1 hour 30 minutes. Once the docking connections and seals had been checked for integrity, the hatches were opened and the crew reentered the space lab for a few more days of work before returning to Earth. The Shenzhou was undocked a second time on June 28 after 4 days 21 hours 13 minutes, giving a total docked time across the two periods of approximately 10 days 8 hours 14 minutes.

Shenzhou 9 completed its expected short solo flight following the undocking, allowing the crew time to prepare for entry and landing the next day. The recovery of the spacecraft was completed on June 29, with the spacecraft landing safely but heavily and apparently bouncing and rolling before coming to a halt.

Subsequent reports indicated that the Descent Module had actually missed its intended landing target by 9.94 miles (16 km), though this was still within the planned 22.37 miles (36 km) by 22.37 miles (36 km) landing footprint. The DM landed near a small river, hitting a slope on one of the riverbanks before coming to a rest. Rescue crews were soon on the scene and the three occupants seemed none the worse for their ordeal. They departed the landing zone a few hours after landing and then completed a 2-week postffight recuperation and debriefing period. The mission was a huge success for the program and for China on the world stage, with talk of the next stage—Shenzhou 10 visiting the station—being likely as early as 2013, reflecting a renewed confidence in the Chinese program.

As a new pioneer was feted, another was mourned. Less than a month after the landing of Shenzhou 9 and the flight of the first Chinese woman in space, the American lady with that honor, Sally Ride (STS-7, STS-41G), sadly died on July 23, 2012 after a long battle against pancreatic cancer. She was just 61.

Milestones

288th manned space flight 4th Chinese manned space flight 4th manned Shenzhou mission

1st manned Chinese automated docking mission (June 18)

1 st Chinese manual docking (June 24)

1st resident crew on Tiangong-1

1 st Chinese taikonaut to make two missions (Jing Haipeng) 1st Chinese female in space (Liu Yang)

Despite no clear commitment to return to the Moon or venture to Mars, there are a number of committed individuals and groups who have produced countless plans and studies for deep-space exploration, hoping for the day when these plans turn into reality. Aside from a return to the Moon, human exploration of Mars and visits to far-flung asteroids, another target for future human exploration often features in these plans—the so-called “gravity parking sites” in space. Called Lagrange (or Lagrangian) points, these are great expanses of space at which the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Earth are equalized, so any spacecraft placed there could remain in place with little effort. Within the Earth-Moon system there are five such points. They are far enough away from the Sun or planetary bodies that they make ideal places to situate observation platforms,

such as ultra-cold telescopes that measure temperature fluctuations in space. Lagrange points are found around other planets and could be used to site remote operations centers intended to control robotic vehicles to explore the less hospitable places in the solar system more easily.

The L2 point is about 1 million kilometers from Earth and is the target location for the James Webb (infrared) Space Telescope, the replacement for the Hubble Space Telescope. Placing the spacecraft at this point makes servicing from Earth extremely difficult, and until the appearance of Orion or a similar spacecraft it will be impossible for several years to come. Once we have the capability to send crews to these points, they will be able to service and repair the range of telescopes currently being planned to be located there, extending their useful life and expand­ing their science program as in the case of Hubble. It may also be possible to perform construction tasks with large space structures or spacecraft at these points before sending them to the distant reaches of the solar system.

These locations could provide useful preparation points for trips to Mars and for controlling automated spacecraft on the Moon—a sort of Mission Control in space. With the development of more artificial intelligence spacecraft, operating a control room from deeper into space where communications would be much quicker would clearly be more advantageous than waiting for signals sent between

Earth and Mars that would need a 40 min round trip. As Gemini was a step for Apollo to the Moon, perhaps Lagrange points will be a stepping stone to deep-space human exploration missions.

In the early days of manned space flight both the Soviets and the Americans planned for a series of suborbital flights before committing their crew members to the more challenging orbital space flight trajectories. A suborbital flight path is similar to a ballistic trajectory to the upper reaches of the atmosphere and then falls back due to insufficient velocity to attain orbital flight. This type of space­flight was flown during the first American manned (Mercury) space shots in 1961. Launched from a carrier aircraft, the 13 X-15 rocket research aircraft flights which were similar but termed “astro-flights” rather than suborbital as they reached lower peak altitudes. It was this type of trajectory that was achieved by the three SpaceShipOne flights in 2004 to claim the “X-Prize”. The failed Soyuz launch in 1975 was also high enough to follow a suborbital trajectory.

The first half century of human space operations has, by any measure, been spectacular and rapid. It had taken hundreds of years to progress to this point, where human space exploration was more than just a dream. After mastering the techniques of balloon flight, gliders, and finally powered flight, it took another half a century to devise systems, procedures, and infrastructure to place man­made objects into space. In the half a century since then, we have created a huge space complex based on the experiences of at least nine earlier space stations, explored the Moon, and launched pathfinder probes to the farthest planets in the solar system, pioneering the way for humans to follow at some point in the future. Human endurance on space flight has increased from minutes to months and the number of crew rose from single-seat space flights to successive international

D. J. Shayler and M. D. Shayler, Manned Spaceflight LogII—2006—2012, Springer Praxis Books 158, DOl 10.1007/978-1-4614-4577-7_2, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

expeditions of up to six on the ISS. The station itself has operated with a crew continuously, 24/7 and 365 days a year, for over a decade.

Plans for large space complexes, bases on the Moon and colonies on Mars, the exploitation of asteroid minerals, and planetary journeys have been suggested for decades. They will surely occur, perhaps not in our lifetime, but not so far in the future to think that it is totally impossible from the standpoint of current technology. Interstellar travel may remain within the realms of science fiction for some considerable time to come, but who knows for sure?

It has taken humans thousands of years to expand across our planet and develop the knowledge, skills, and experience to “live” here, and we are still learning and exploring. It took over 300 years to explore the Pacific Ocean and its environs and we are still investigating the deep jungles, high mountains, and frozen polar caps. We have only touched upon the vast expanses of the ocean beds. All of this could be classed as planetary exploration, but of the planet we all live on. With all this covering such a passage of time in the history of human exploration of Earth, why should we expect so much, so quickly from our explorations in space after only half a century?

Launch systems

Active participation in a flight into space starts, logically, with the flight. This is a short, 8-10-minute, exciting, explosive, but always interesting, trip from the launchpad to low Earth orbit. Getting off the planet is always the first hurdle and, as the German rocket engineer Werner von Braun once explained, “Once you have left Earth, you are halfway to anywhere.”

For the first journeys into space, adapted ballistic missiles were used to carry a human crew, riding on Vostok, Voskhod, Mercury, and Gemini spacecraft. For Apollo, a new family of “space boosters” was developed—the Saturn rockets— which were powerful enough to take the first men to the Moon and to launch America’s only space station. Unfortunately, the rocket developed for the Soviet manned lunar program did not perform as planned and cosmonauts never rode the goliath off the pad. It was the smaller, ballistic missile, designated the R-7, which became the workhorse for the Soviet and subsequent Russian space program. More recently, it has also given international crew members access to space when the Shuttle was unavailable and following its retirement in 2011.

For over 50 years, the R-7 in its various guises has propelled cosmonauts from the national launch site in Baikonur to orbit on over 100 missions. The reliability and ruggedness of the design and the foresight of the decision to go with the launch vehicle in the 1950s are remarkable. Despite all the international technology, advanced designs, and countless proposals and plans, the most reliable

and long-lasting launch system to Earth orbit is one that has been around for as long as we have ventured into space. In 50 years, it has endured very few launch – pad aborts and only two launch incidents; the 1975 third-stage separation failure and 1983 pad abort both resulted in the safe recovery of the crew. It stands as a remarkable credit to Russian engineering that it is this R-7 which has outlasted all the other launch vehicles that have taken humans into space.

With the retirement of the Shuttle, there remain (2012) only two operational manned (orbital) space flight launch systems available in the global program, the Russian R-7 and the Chinese Long March 2F. There are plans and designs in development for carrying human crews on board, but these are still some years away from operational use.

The Mercury-Redstone, Mercury-Atlas, Gemini-Titan II, Apollo-Saturn IB and Saturn V were very successful, with no launch failures and very few “near misses” considering the pioneering nature of their use in the early years of manned space flight. Over the 135 launches of the Space Shuttle system, there was only one tragic launch accident (Challenger) resulting in the loss of life and one launch abort to orbit (STS-51F). Though termed operational from its fifth launch, the Shuttle system in hindsight could only be termed a research vehicle rather than totally “operational” in the true sense of the word, due to the changes in launch manifests and delays in ground processing. Indeed, it would be difficult to term any manned launch system, apart from perhaps the R-7, as operational, due to the length of time in service and the number of launches completed.

While America was reeling from the loss of Challenger and her crew, the Soviets were about to launch their next space station. Twenty-two days after the Challenger accident, it was not Salyut 8 that was placed in orbit but a new station called Mir (“Peace”). This new station, it was explained, was just the core module of a planned larger complex, incorporating six docking ports (five around a forward-located “node” and the sixth at the rear) to accommodate visiting Soyuz and Progress spacecraft and additional modules being launched over the next few years. There would also be provision to receive the yet-to-appear Buran space shuttle. With more than one docking facility, planned crew rotation and resupply could be completed without the need to vacate the station, thus maximizing the efficiency of the crew and eliminating the need to power down or reactivate station systems between expeditions.

In 1987, Kvant 1 became the first module attached to the Mir core. This was packed with astrophysics instruments and was originally intended for Salyut 7. It housed the initial set of gyrodynes, which enabled the complex to maintain its attitude without firing its thrusters and using up precious onboard propellants. The next module, Kvant 2, arrived in 1989. Kvant 2 became an extension facility

to the main core module and was used for scientific research and EVA operations using an integrated airlock section for the space walks. In 1990, the Kristall space processing facility (also known as the technological module) arrived at Mir, bring­ing experiment furnaces and other equipment to expand the scientific research program on the station. There was an additional docking facility on Kristall originally intended for Buran. Although this was never used by the Soviet shuttle, the American shuttle docked to this module via a Russian-built docking module added in 1995. Delays in delivering these modules stretched the Mir manifest and caused the station to be temporarily abandoned for a few months during 1989.

In 1988, the much anticipated Soviet Buran space shuttle completed its maiden, unmanned flight. Despite this impressive achievement Buran never flew again due to budget restrictions. After years of development, construction of facil­ities, and training of crew members, the program disappeared in the wake of changes to the former Soviet Union. The Buran cosmonaut team finally disbanded in the mid-1990s, with the residual hardware abandoned, and the program provid­ing a new chapter in space history of lost opportunities and wasted resources.

Following the loss of Challenger, the Americans reevaluated the Shuttle program and, as a result, the majority of commercial satellite deployments were shifted to expendable launch vehicles. The emphasis of the Shuttle manifest for the rest of the decade was on the recertification of both the Shuttle system and

each individual orbiter, following the recommendations of the Challenger inquiry and to catch up with several important and long-delayed payloads which had to be launched on the Shuttle. Discovery was the first to return to flight, in Septem­ber 1988, followed by Atlantis in December that year and finally Columbia in August 1989. The primary payloads launched in this period (1988-1990) were two Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, which would provide increased orbital com­munication coverage for future Shuttle missions. Other missions flown included the delayed deployment of the planetary probes Magellan (STS-30) to Venus, Galileo (STS-34) to Jupiter, and the solar polar observer Ulysses (STS-41). There were five fully classified DoD missions and the retrieval (STS-32) of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), which had been deployed in 1984 and was originally planned for retrieval in 1985. The Hubble Space Telescope was also finally deployed (STS-30) and the first dedicated Shuttle pallet science mission, Astro-1 (STS-35), was flown to great success.

2008-050A October 12, 2008

Pad 1, Site 5, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Republic of

Kazakhstan

April 8, 2009

151 km northeast of Dzhezkazgan, Republic of Kazakhstan

Soyuz-FG (serial number Щ15000-026),

Soyuz TMA (serial number 223)/17S 178 da 00 h 13 min 38 s (Lonchakov, Fincke)

11 da 20 h 35 min 37 s (Garriott)

Titan

ISS resident crew transport (17S), ISS-18 resident crew; visiting crew 15 (Generation II Astronaut, GTA) research program

Flight crew

LONCHAKOV, Yuri Valentinovich, 43, Russian Federation Air Force, RSA Soyuz TMA commander, ISS flight engineer 1, third mission Previous missions: STS-100 (2001), Soyuz TMA-1 (2002)

FINCKE, Edward Michael, 41, USAF, NASA Soyuz TMA flight engineer, NASA ISS commander, second mission Previous mission: Soyuz TMA-4/ISS-9 (2004)

GARRIOTT, Richard Allen, 46, civilian, American space flight participant ISS resident crew exchanges

CHAMITOFF, Gregory Errol, 45, NASA ISS flight engineer 2 (up STS-124, down STS-126)

MAGNUS, Sandra Hall, 44, NASA ISS flight engineer 2 (up STS-126, down STS-119), second mission Previous mission: STS-112 (2002)

WAKATA, Koichi, 45, JAXA (Japanese) ISS flight engineer 2 (up STS-119, down STS-127), third mission Previous missions: STS-72 (1996), STS-92 (2000)

Flight log

The 18th resident crew arrived at the docking port of Zarya on October 14, 2008, two days after leaving the Baikonur Cosmodrome. They assumed formal residency from the ISS-17 crew on October 22.

In command of the Soyuz, but serving as flight engineer on the station was veteran cosmonaut Yuri Lonchakov. He had previously flown on two visiting missions to the station on Shuttle in (2001) and on the maiden flight of TMA (2002). The flight engineer on Soyuz and commander of the residency was veteran NASA astronaut Michael Fincke, who had previously logged 187 days aboard the station on ISS-8. Arriving with the ISS-18 crew was Richard Garriott, the latest

SFP and son of Skylab and Spacelab astronaut Owen Garriott. He would return with the outgoing ISS-17 cosmonauts in TMA-12 after a flight of 10 days on station.

The experiences of his father were mirrored in Garriott’s own program of research on the station 35 years later. The Generation II Astronaut (GTA) project featured nine experiments. There were two more under the ESA program and three under the U. S. medical program. The nine experiments featured research in life science, biotechnology, technical research, education, and humanities, as well as a range of public affairs and outreach programs. Six experiments were per­formed in the Russian segment, the other three in the U. S. segment. Garriott was assigned 33 hours of experiment time, supported by one of the Russian cosmo­nauts for photo-documentation. The memory of his father’s Skylab mission was also recalled with an updated Leonardo da Vinci figure used as the mission emblem as was the case with his father’s Skylab 3 emblem. Garriott’s return on TMA 12 completed a highly successful 12-day mission.

For the main crew, the Russian research program consisted of 46 experiments, only 5 of which were new investigations. The remainder were continuations of previous investigations. There were 6 experiments in human life research, 7 in geophysical research, and 3 in Earth research. A further 14 experiments were under the heading of space technology, with 6 technical research investigations, 2 contracted activities, and 2 on the study of cosmic rays. There were also 3 educa­tional experiments and 3 more in space technology and material sciences. A total of 161 hours were allocated for Russian science across the mission.

Over in the U. S. segment, the research to be completed during this residency included 40 NASA-managed experiments in human research, exploration technol­ogy testing, biological and physical sciences, and education. In addition, there were 33 experiments planned by the European and Japanese space agencies.

During this expedition, three other crew members worked with the Russians. When the main crew arrived, Chamitoff was already aboard. He was replaced by Sandra Magnus on STS-126 in November 2008 and she in turn was replaced in March 2009 by Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata on STS-119. The two Shuttle missions delivered further logistics to the station, with STS-126 being the second dedicated Utilization and Logistics Flight and STS-119 delivering the long-delayed final set of solar arrays and truss element S6. Both flights included several EVAs in support of the activities by Shuttle crew members.

ISS-18 crew members Fincke and Lonchakov conducted two EVAs totaling 10 hours 27 minutes from Pirs, wearing Orlan-M suits for the final time before the improved Orlan MK suits were introduced. The first EVA (December 23, 2008, 5 h 38 min) was designated Russian Segment EVA 21 and included the retrieval of experiment samples and deployment of a Langmuir probe to measure electrical and plasma fields close to the docked Soyuz spacecraft. Studies of electromagnetic energy were linked to the ongoing investigations into the problems with the pyrotechnical separation bolts on the Soyuz which had troubled TMA-10 and TMA-11. The EVA crew deployed two experiments on a special platform on the outside of the Zvezda module.

The second EVA (March 10, 2009: 4h 49 min), designated Russian Segment EVA 21A, was not part of the original mission planning, but when the pair had difficultly installing a ESA experiment on their first EVA, the second excursion was added instead of returning the hardware to Earth. This time, the EXPOSE-R biological exposure samples were installed and the two men took time to clear six straps from the docking area on Pirs to prevent hindrance with future docking operations. Other tasks included closing a loose insulation flap on Zvezda, removing an experiment cassette, and further photo-documentation.

This mission also featured the arrival at station of the latest variant of the venerable unmanned Progress resupply cargo craft, the M-01M (31P), on Novem­ber 30. Launched on November 26, the longer-than-usual approach allowed ground controllers to fully evaluate the new systems on the vehicle before commit­ting to ISS docking. Outwardly resembling the earlier versions, this upgraded variant included a state-of-the-art digital computer system and more compact avionics, saving 165.3751b (75 kg) dry mass over previous versions, with 15 fewer components. The upgraded equipment enabled automatic diagnostics between the telemetry and computer systems while also providing digital interfaces for the integration of all systems when docked with the ISS.

With the arrival of the TMA-14 crew (ISS-19) at the end of March, and completion of their science program, it was time once again to exchange the responsibility of command of the station; this was completed on April 2, formally ending the ISS-18 residency after 162 days. Arriving at the station with ISS-19 crew was Space Flight Participant Simonyi, on his historic second 10-day visit to the station. He returned with ISS-18 crew, who undocked in Soyuz TMA-13 on April 8, 2009 after 176 days on board the orbital complex. Their safe landing was achieved later that day near the town of Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan.

Milestones

262nd manned space flight 106th Russian manned space flight 99th manned Soyuz flight 13 th manned Soyuz TMA mission 17th ISS Soyuz mission (17S)

15th ISS Soyuz visiting mission 18th ISS resident crew

1 st flight of a son of a NASA astronaut (Richard Garriott/Owen Garriott) Chamitoff celebrates his 46th birthday (August 6)

Flight crew

FERGUSON, Christopher John, 47, USN, NASA commander, second mission Previous mission: STS-115 (2006)

BOE, Eric Allen, 44, USAF, NASA pilot

PETTIT, Donald Ray, 53, civilian, NASA mission specialist 1, second mission Previous mission: ISS E06/STS-113/TMA-1 (2002-2003)

BOWEN, Stephen George, 44, USN, NASA mission specialist 2 STEFANYSHYN-PIPER, Heidemarie Martha, 45 USN, NASA mission specialist 3, second mission Previous mission: STS-115 (2006)

KIMBROUGH, Robert Shane, 41, U. S. Army, NASA mission specialist 4 ISS resident expedition crew member transfers

MAGNUS, Sandra Hall, 44, civilian, NASA mission specialist 5 (up only)/ISS – 18 flight engineer, second mission Previous mission: STS-112 (2002)

CHAMITOFF, Gregory Errol, 45, civilian, NASA mission specialist 5 (down only)/ISS-18 flight engineer

Flight log

Dubbed a mission of home improvement and maintenance, this flight was packed with robotic arm operations, repairs, and servicing activities. Designed to deliver construction equipment intended to expand the living conditions in order to accommodate a permanent crew of six, the flight also featured another exchange

of NASA-ISS flight engineers via the Space Shuttle, as part of the resident crew of station prior to permanent six-person crewing.

In the original planning, Endeavour was intended to support the forthcoming Hubble Service Mission (STS-125) before flying on STS-126. Endeavour was rolled into the OPF on March 27, 2008 for processing. It was then relocated to the VAB on September 11, 2008, for stacking to the ET and SRB. On September 19 the STS-126 stack was relocated to Pad 39B to serve as an emergency rescue vehicle (if needed) for the STS-125 Hubble Service Mission 4, which was preparing to launch from Pad A. This was the first time since 2001 that a shuttle stack had sat on both launchpads at the Cape. When the Hubble mission was postponed into 2009 in late September due to problems with the telescope, all work on Endeavour to support the mission ended and focus shifted back to STS-126. When Discovery was rolled back to the VAB on October 20, Endeavour was moved across to the now vacant Pad 39A on October 23, 2008, the day after its Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) payload arrived.

The launch into a night sky was flawlessly performed on November 14, 2008. A 5 h inspection of the vehicle’s heat shield was conducted by the crew using the RMS and OBSS, prior to docking with station. Analysis of the imagery and data on the ground revealed that a small piece of thermal blanket was loose on the aft portion of Endeavour. As with previous flights, Endeavour was inverted for documentation and analysis of the underside. Following further analysis of the data, it was determined that there would be no need for a further inspection, as the heat shield looked in good condition for entry.

Endeavour docked with the ISS on November 16 and this was followed a few hours later by Magnus exchanging places with Chamitolf on the resident crew. He had spent 167 days as member ISS-18. The following day, MPLM Leonardo was relocated by the ISS robotic arm to the nadir port on Harmony. On board Leonardo were 6.5 tons of equipment, including two large water-recycling racks, a new “kitchen”, a second toilet, two further sleeping stations, extra exercise equipment, and other supphes.

Mission specialists Stefanyshyn-Piper, Bowen, and Kimbrough completed a series of four EVAs during the mission, totaling 26 hours 41 minutes. Bowen logged the most time at 19 hours 56 minutes in three space walks. Piper logged 18 hours 34 minutes in her three space walks, while Kimbrough’s two EYAs logged 12 hours 52 minutes.

During the first EVA (November 18; 6 h 52 min), Piper and Bowen spent the majority of their time outside working on the SARJ, removing two of the joint’s Trundle Bearing Assemblies (TBAs). They also removed a depleted nitrogen tank from a storage platform on the station, returning it to the payload bay of Endeavour. Other tasks included moving a flex hose rotating coupler from the Shuttle across to the Station Storage Platform and removing insulation blankets from the Cameras Berthing Mechanism (CBM) on the Kibo laboratory.

Approximately halfway into this EVA, one of the grease guns that Piper was preparing to use at the SARJ released some of the Braycote grease into her Crew Lock Bag. This is the bag used by spacewalkers during their activities to retain spare tools and equipment. As she was cleaning the inside of the bag, it drifted away from her towards the aft and starboard of the station. It was soon out of reach, preventing her from retrieving it. Inside this bag were two grease guns, scrapers, several wipes and tethers, as well as several tool caddies. Piper and Bowen spent the remainder of their EVA time sharing a duplicate set of tools from the other Cew Lock Bag (CLB) they had with them.

During the second EVA (November 20; 6h 45 min) Piper and Kimbrough moved two Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA) carts. They also lubricated the station’s RMS latches and an end effector snare (the capture device), then cleaned and replaced four TBAs. The next EVA (November 22, 6h 57 min) saw Piper and Bowen replace five more TBAs and clean and lubricate race rings on the station’s starboard SARJ.

On the final EVA (November 24, 6 h 7 min), Kimbrough and Bowen replaced the final TBA on the station’s starboard SARJ, lubricated the race rings on the port SARJ, moved a video camera on the Part 1 Truss, and installed two Global Positioning Satellite Antennas on the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) Logistics Module. They also retracted the latch on the JEM Exposed Facility Berthing Mechanism and reinstalled the mechanical cover.

In addition to the EVAs conducted outside the station, the crew occupied themselves by working with the resident station crew to convert the orbital facility to support a six-person crew and completed a wide variety of other tasks. Latches on the Exposed Facility Berthing Mechanism on the Japanese Kibo Laboratory were also tested. This mechanism would be used to install the External Science Platform on the Kibo, which would be delivered in 2009.

The astronauts installed a new Water Recovery System, which was designed to treat waste water and then provide recycled water that was clean and safe enough to drink. Supplying any crew with fresh drinking water has always been one of the challenges facing long-duration mission planners, spacecraft designers, and medical staff. Short missions are more easily accommodated, but supporting a crew of six or more 24/7 for 365 days a year is a logistical challenge. Lessons learned from previous space station programs, applied and improved on the ISS, will lay the groundwork for long-duration flights away from Earth, to the Moon, Mars, and the asteroids.

The Urine Processor Assembly (UPA) shut down during initial test operations. The station and Shuttle crews, as well as ground controllers and engin­eers, investigated possible causes and cures over the next several days. It was determined that the motion of the centrifuge had caused physical interference with the UPA, which resulted in increased power draw and temperatures. The UPA was hand-mounted onto the Water Recovery System (WRS) rack after grommets were removed. Following this remedy, the UPA ran normally. On the 10th day of the mission, the NASA Management Team extended the mission’s docked duration by an extra day. This would allow additional time for further WRS troubleshooting if required.

On November 25, the crew were informed that the starboard SARJ had completed a 3 h 20 min test, during which it automatically tracked the Sun for the first time in over a year. In addition, the UPA had completed its second run without shutting down. The combined crew celebrated Thanksgiving aboard station and sent a greeting to American personnel who were serving abroad, away from home and family. The crews thanked members of the armed services for their commitment and dedication and wished them well.

With joint operations nearing completion, MPLM Leonardo was relocated back into the payload bay of Endeavour on November 26 for the return home. Undocking occurred on November 28 after joint operations totaling 11 days 16 hours 46 minutes with Chamitoff logging 179 days on the station. Endeavour’s pilot, Eric Boe, completed a standard fly-around of the station for photo-docu­mentation. The next day, the crew conducted an inspection of the thermal

protection system with the RMS and OBSS. Following analysis of the images, the heat shield was cleared for entry and landing.

Towards the end of orbital operations on November 29, a small, 15.4351b (7 kg) USAF satellite was deployed. PICOSat was designed to test and evaluate space environment effects on new solar cell technology. Expected to remain in orbit for several months, it finally de-orbited on February 17, 2010.

Weather concerns at the Florida primary landing site forced two standoffs before finally diverting the landing to California. Endeavour landed on a tempor­ary runway adjacent to the concrete Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base. The concrete asphalt runway was 12,000 ft (3657.6 m) long by 20 ft (6.09 m) wide, with a 1,000 ft (348 m) underrun and overrun capability for Shuttle load-bearing support. As this runway was 1,940 ft (3,000 m) shorter than the nominal runways, new braking and rollout techniques had to be employed for this landing, providing new and additional information on landing a Shuttle orbiter.

Milestones

263rd manned space flight 154th U. S. manned space flight 124th Shuttle mission 26th flight of Endeavour 27th Shuttle ISS mission 9th Endeavour ISS mission First dual-pad Shuttle preparation since 2001

First landing on a temporary runway at Dryden due to maintenance on main runways

Bowen was first USN submarine officer selected for NASA astronaut training, and the second submariner to fly in space (after Mike McCulley on STS-34 in 1989)

Flight crew

ARCHAMBAULT, Lee Joseph, 48, USAF, NASA commander, second mission Previous mission-. STS-117 (2007)

ANTONELLI, Dominic Anthony, 41, USN, NASA pilot ACABA, Joseph Michael, 41, civilian, NASA mission specialist 1 SWANSON, Steven Roy, 48, civilian, NASA mission specialist 2, second mission

Previous mission-. STS-117 (2007)

ARNOLD II, Richard Robert, 45, NASA mission specialist 3

PHILLIPS, John Lynch, 57, USN Reserve (Retd.), NASA mission specialist 4,

third mission

Previous missions-. STS-100 (2001), ISS-ll/TMA-6 (2005)

ISS resident crew members

WAKATA, Koichi, 45, civilian (Japanese), JAXA mission speciahst 5 (up only)/ISS flight engineer, third mission Previous missions-. STS-72 (1996), STS-92 (2000)

MAGNUS, Sandra Hall, 44, civilian, NASA mission specialist 5 (down only)/ ISS flight engineer, second mission Previous mission: STS-112 (2002)

Flight log

One of the challenges that a researcher of Shuttle missions has to overcome is the mission numbering system and sequence. For most of the program, the missions

did not fly in sequence of allocated numbers. This was especially true for the delayed STS-119, which flew after STS-126 but before STS-125!

The inclusion of four crew members whose surnames began with “A” saw the crew being termed the “A” team. Two of these (Acaba and Arnold) were former teachers turned astronauts, who were selected in 2004 to assist NASA to inspire young people to study mathematics and science and hopefully to go on to pursue engineering and aerospace careers.

This mission dehvered the fourth and final set of solar array wings, as well as the S6 truss, completing the structural backbone of the station and the main electrical power supply to the facility. With the installation of the final set of arrays, full power capacity could reach 120kW of electricity, doubling the available power for scientific experiments from 15kW to 30 kW and allowing the station’s permanent resident crew complement to increase from three to six.

Final preparation for the mission began with Discovery being taken into the OPF on June 14, 2008. Rollover to the VAB occurred on January 7, 2009, with transfer to Pad 39A a week later on January 14. The original launch date had been set for February 12, but this was postponed following an issue with the gaseous hydrogen flow control valves. These valves are part of the system that channels gaseous hydrogen from the main engines to the External Tank. The valves had to be replaced and the launch was reset for March 11.

On that date, however, the launch had to be postponed again for at least 24 hours, due to a hydrogen leak in the left-hand vent line between the Shuttle and the ET. Managers and engineers looked at potential repair options and the launch was rescheduled for no earlier than March 15. This meant the flight’s docked time at the station would be reduced by two days so that the Shuttle could depart prior to the arrival of the next resident crew on Soyuz TMA – 14.

The March 15 launch occurred on time and with no problems during ascent. During FD2 (March 16), the crew completed a close inspection of the orbiter’s wing leading edge panels using the RMS and OBSS. The crew installed the orbiter docking system “centerline” camera, tested the rendezvous equipment, and extended the docking ring on the top of the docking assembly. Prior to docking with the station on March 17, the orbiter completed the now familiar backflip maneuver for heat shield damage assessment. Experts in the field and the Damage Assessment Team in Mission Control Houston determined that the heat shield was healthy for reentry.

Discovery docked with the ISS on March 17, with Magnus and Wakata swapping roles and Soyuz seat liners later the same day. Magnus had spent 121 days as a member of the ISS-18 crew by the end of the mission, logging 129 days on board the station and a total of 134 days in space. Her replacement, Koichi Wakata, became the first representative of Japan to join a resident crew. The following day (March 18), the ITS S6 truss structure was relocated across to the station from Discovery’s payload bay ready for the series of EVAs to attach it permanently to the station.

There were three EVAs completed during this mission, totaling 19 hours 4 minutes, with three astronauts conducting two EVAs each. Swanson logged 12 hours 37 minutes, Acaba 12 hours 57 minutes, and Arnold 12 hours 34 minutes. On the first EVA (March 19, 6h 7 min), Swanson and Arnold bolted the S6 truss into place. They then connected the power and data cables that allowed station flight controls to command the segment into operation remotely.

For the second EVA (March 21, 6h 30min), Swanson teamed with Acaba. They prepared a work site for new batteries that were scheduled for delivery on STS-127. In addition, they installed a Global Positioning System antenna on the Pressurized Logistics Module attached to the Japanese Kibo laboratory. This would allow the Japanese automatic H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) to rendezvous with the station later in 2009. It also set the stage for future assembly tasks by station and Shuttle crews. A misaligned bracket proved too difficult to reposition during the installation of a cargo carrier attach system, so the two astronauts moved to other tasks, including image documentation of the station’s radiators.

The third and final EVA (March 23, 6h 27 min) saw Acaba and Arnold relocate one of the two CETA carts from one side of the Mobile Transporter to the other. Again, difficulty was encountered when they had trouble freeing a stuck mechanism. This would have enabled them to deploy a spare equipment platform, but the task had to be deferred to a future space walk. A similar task on another Payload Attach System was also deleted from the EVA by Mission Control. The astronauts did lubricate the end effecter capture system on the station’s RMS. This task had proven effective during the STS-126 mission, preventing the snare from

snagging and allowing it to return snugly into its groove inside the latching mechanism.

Inside the station, the crew replaced a failed unit on a system that converted urine to potable water. By March 24, 701b (8.38 gallons or 30.09 liters) of urine had been processed in the system, from which 151b (1.79 gallons or 0.39 liters) of reclaimed drinking water had been collected. Samples from the Water Recovery System were collected for analysis on Earth to determine if the purified water was suitable for the crew to drink before any was consumed on the station. Two loadmasters (Arnold and Phillips) were assigned the task of keeping track of the transfer of supplies and logistics across to the station and the unwanted gear, experiment results, and samples back into the orbiter.

On March 24, both the Shuttle and station crews (10 astronauts and cosmonauts) gathered in the Harmony Node on station to speak with U. S. President Barack Obama, Members of Congress and schoolchildren from the Washington, D. C. area. Discovery undocked later that day (the 10th day of the mission) after 7 days 22 hours 33 minutes of joint operations. As usual, the mission pilot (in this case, Antonelli) performed the undocking and fly-around maneuver around the station while the rest of the crew photographed the completed truss assembly, now with the final set of solar array wings fully deployed.

On March 26, Antonelli used the Shuttle RMS to hold the OBSS, enabling the lasers and cameras to scan the surface of the orbiter for any signs of damage to the thermal protection system. No such damage was found. The first landing opportunity was waived off due to gusty winds and clouds at the Shuttle Landing Facility at the Cape, but conditions improved enough to allow a successful landing in Florida during the next orbit, 90 minutes later.

Milestones

264th manned spaceflight 155th U. S. manned spaceflight 125th Shuttle mission 36th flight of Discovery 28th Shuttle ISS mission 10th Discovery ISS mission 100th post-Challenger mission

Wakata became the first JAXA/Japanese resident ISS crew member

Research conducted over many years indicates that using a semi-ballistic, suborbital trajectory may be a future possibility for traveling between the United States and Europe in just one hour, or to Australia in less than two hours. At present this is being investigated for unmanned, courier, business, or for military quick-response applications rather than passenger travel, due to the high costs envisaged. In theory future transportation systems could develop suborbital “space-lines” carrying 50 passengers from Europe to Australia in 90 minutes or 100 passengers to California in an hour. A distant dream today, perhaps, but the thought of such hypersonic suborbital spaceplanes means that you could have breakfast in London, lunch on the beach in California or Australia, time for shop­ping and back home to catch an evening show! Of course the price of such a trip and what it would do to the jet lag effect would put all but the very rich, or higher society, off such a regular adventure, but eventually…

In reviewing five decades of manned space flight operations, it is difficult to define any specific decade as a singular era, but in general the 1960s could be termed the pioneering decade; the 1970s the decade of ascending learning curve; the 1980s the reality decade; the 1990s the decade of application; and the 2000s perhaps a decade of expansion. What lies ahead is for the pages of history.

Connections

The physical quest for space flight can be traced back to the era of stratospheric balloon ascents during the early decades of the 20th century. This was followed by aviation pioneers in their quest for speed, height, duration, and eventually the international drive to break the sound barrier and pushing the limits of rocket aircraft propulsion. All of these linked steps led up to the dawn of human space flight operations. What is less often considered are the significant, but connected developments in other areas of science, technology, medicine, and human endeavor, including of course military advancements, which have all contributed to applications now used in space exploration. There is often discussion about the benefits of space flight and the spin-offs from the investment and technology devel­oped, but this works both ways. There are technologies and procedures which

have been incorporated into the space program which have filtered down to improve aspects of fife here on the ground.

Lessons learned from other endeavors are crucial to developing the next steps in space. For example, underwater exploration is currently being used to prepare astronauts for flights on the Space Station and in supporting simulations related to future explorations of the asteroids, the Moon, and Mars. Other extreme environment operations are to be found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions of Earth, in long-duration isolation chamber experiments (such as the recent Mars 500 experiment) and even experience from what are now termed extreme sports.

The history of polar exploration has analogues in long-duration space flight, and studies of the close confines of living and working in nuclear submarines, submerged for days or weeks in isolated environments under operational and stressful situations, have also been used to evaluate crew behavior and perform­ance on programs such as the Space Station. This work, including that being conducted by expedition crews on the ISS, will have direct application for our eventual return to the Moon and out to Mars, where long-term research bases will have to be staffed and operated remotely from our planet by self-reliant crews, with support from Earth coming in an advisory or backup role.

We are at a key point in human space flight history. After 50 years, we can no longer consider ourselves to be pioneering. It is now time to homestead space and to expand our horizons, creating a reliable, economical, and sustainable infrastruc­ture to move away from Earth, not only to explore new planets, moons, and asteroids but also to safely exploit their resources. We must still monitor our own world to ensure its survival and get the best use from its finite resources and we must discover how to balance our need for those resources with protection of the natural environment to ensure we can continue to live here. If we learn these lessons here on Earth, we can apply them to other worlds with confidence and perhaps a clear conscience.

Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders once said that the most valuable return from going to the Moon was to discover Earth. In expanding our knowledge and understanding of our own planet, we can put our best efforts into exploring new worlds. The last five decades have created the foundations for a concerted inter­national effort to move out into the cosmos. Never again can we look up at the night sky and wonder what it would actually be like to go there, because we have done that. We just need to keep going a little farther.

Hindsight is a wonderful way to interpret past events and experiences and to think how things could have been done better or differently. It is quite easy to look back and wonder what might have been if certain events had or had not happened or if fate had intervened a different way. In this context, you could ponder endlessly what would have happened if the Americans had launched the first satellite; if the Soviets had landed on the Moon before the Americans; if Apollo had not been canceled in 1972; if the Shuttle had been authorized with its liquid-fueled manned booster; if Buran had become operational; if a Moon base and 50-man space station had been authorized; and so on. That small word “if” could lead to countless such speculations but can never affect what actually happened.

In reality, as humans we can only do our best and hope we get it right. In space flight, “our best” has yielded some spectacular achievements over the past half a century. Whether the decisions made were the right decisions is irrelevant and unchangeable, but they can be learned from for such decisions in the future. Here, we can only briefly summarize the achievements and decisions of these first five decades, to provide an awareness of how we arrived at this point in space exploration and allow us to decide where to go next.

The 1980s were termed the reality years for good reason, for both the Soviets and Americans. The Soviets, despite great success with their Salyut and Mir programs,

were suffering from lack of funding to expand the program as planned. An improved station, Mir 2, was struggling for funding even to be built; Buran had flown successfully, proving the concept, but was also unable to attract funds to continue. On top of all this, the country itself was under extreme pressure both internally and externally to change and reform. The surprising and sudden demise of communism towards the end of the decade in Eastern Europe—and the even­tual breakup of the U. S.S. R.—was a major catalyst with global repercussions, and the pride of Soviet achievement—the Soviet space program—suffered. If it was to survive, the program would have to find other avenues of funding, much to the frustration of the older leadership in the design bureaus, the corridors of the Kremlin, and the top brass in the military. For a while, the program struggled on, but talks were in hand to help restore its pride and ensure its survival through the final decade of the century and beyond.

For NASA, the Shuttle was not delivering what was promised. The launch costs could not be lowered and the USAF had backed out of ordering their own orbiters and operating them from California. Commercial applications that took advantage of the unique characteristics of both the microgravity environment and the Shuttle transportation system were few and far between. It was becoming harder to keep the Shuttle flying and far from routine to launch them on time. The Challenger accident remained a painful memory.

On the positive side, as well as some remarkable flight operations once the vehicle attained orbit, significant lessons were learned and experience gained from

repeated ground turnaround, from planning to processing, launching, and recov­ery to postflight analysis of the fleet of vehicles. A similar learning curve came from flying the dozens of payloads and experiments that the fleet did carry, from the smallest school experiment to complex Spacelab payloads.

Hovering in the background of all this was the Freedom space station program, which was slowly gaining momentum following its 1984 authorization. Unfortunately, it was also gaining in size, mass, complexity, and cost. The new decade would once again signal changes, both on Earth and for operations in its orbit.