Category Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961-2006

Flight Crew

CRIPPEN, Robert Laurel, 45, USN, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-1 (1981)

HAUCK, Frederick “Rick” Hamilton, 42, USN, pilot FABIAN, John McCreary, 44, USAF, mission specialist 1 RIDE, Sally Kristen, 32, civilian, mission specialist 2 THAGARD, Norman Earl, 39, civilian, mission specialist 3

Flight Log

By contrast to the Soviet reaction to the flight of Svetlana Savitskaya in 1982, the US launch of Sally Ride was played down as much as possible by NASA and by the lady herself, not with total success. The on-time lift-off occurred at 07: 33 hrs local time and after MECO, two OMS burns were required to carry Challenger to its operational 28.45° orbit with a maximum altitude of 272 km (169 miles). Crippen, the first person to fly the Shuttle for a second time, described the launch as a bit smoother than he remembered on STS-1.

The first commercial satellite payload was delivered into orbit at T + 9 hours 29 minutes, with an accuracy estimated at within 457 m (1,500 ft) of the target point and within 0.085° of the required pointing vector. Canada’s Anik 2C later made its way into geostationary orbit. The following day, satellite number two, India’s Palapa, was safely deployed. With the commercial trucking mission over, the crew got down to the third satellite deployment, that of the West German SPAS free flier, using the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) arm operated by John Fabian. Almost immedi­ately, Fabian grabbed the satellite, demonstrating the first satellite retrieval. SPAS was released again and Crippen moved Challenger 300 m (984 ft) away and performed a series of station-keeping manoeuvres. Cameras on SPAS, meanwhile, took spec-

tacular photos of Challenger in space, with the RMS arm conveniently cocked in the shape of a number 7.

Six science experiments were on board and these operated for nine-and-a-quarter hours autonomously before the free flier was retrieved, this time by Sally Ride. The third mission specialist, the flight doctor Norman Thagard, who had been added to the crew to study space adaptation syndrome, even had a go at using the RMS. A complement of onboard experiments was operated by the crew, including the first demonstration of the Shuttle’s Ku-band rendezvous radar system and a reduction in cabin pressure from 760 mm (3in) to 527 mm (2 in) for 30 hours to investigate the possibility of eliminating the required three-and-a-half hours pre-breathing period for EVA astronauts.

The high point of the mission was to be Challenger’s return to the Kennedy Space Center, the first such return to launch site in history. Bad weather thwarted the attempt and Crippen was diverted to Edwards Air Force Base to land on runway 15. His request for a two day orbital extension was turned down because of concerns over one of the APUs on Challenger. Mission time was T + 6 days 2 hours 23 minutes 59 seconds.

Milestones

91st manned space flight 38th US manned space flight 7th Shuttle flight 2nd flight of Challenger 1st flight with five crew 1st US female in space

Flight Crew

LYAKHOV, Vladimir Afanasevich, 42, Soviet Air Force, commander, 2nd mission

Previous mission: Soyuz 32 (1979)

ALEKSANDROV, Aleksandr Pavlovich, 40, civilian, flight engineer

Flight Log

Following the docking failure of Soyuz T8, the next crew were assigned to complete most of the tasks planned for the previous one. However, Titov and Strekalov had conducted extensive EVA training which the T9 crew had not, so the plan was to launch Soyuz T10 with Titov and Strekalov aboard to take over from the T9 crew and conduct the extensive EVAs they had trained for.

Soyuz T9, with a crew of two rather than the expected three (due to additional propellant load), took off from Baikonur at 15: 12hrs local time, and just over a day later docked at the rear of Salyut 7 to start a mission that would, according to mission controller Valery Ryumin, be shorter than Soyuz T5’s 211 days. They almost did not make it as, for the first time since Soyuz 1, one of the twin solar panels on Soyuz failed to deploy (although this did not prevent the docking with the Salyut), a fact not revealed for 20 years. The crew, Vladimir Lyakhov and rookie flight engineer Aleksandr Aleksandrov, were the first to operate using a Heavy Cosmos module, No.1443, attached to the front of Salyut 7. This two-part spacecraft contained a 1.5 m3 (50 ft3) habitable module, an Instrument Module, and a descent capsule capable of returning 500 kg (1,103 lb) to Earth. The module was equipped with 38 m2 (40 ft2) of solar panels, providing 3 kW of electricity.

Lyakhov and Aleksandrov got down to work producing virus cells and conduct­ing Earth resources surveys, saving Soviet citizens from disaster by warning of the formation of a lake from a melting glacier which threatened to flood several towns beneath. While the crew were inside Soyuz T9 conducting a mock evacuation exercise,

one of Salyut’s 14mm (1 in) thick windows was pitted to a depth of 4mm (0.16 in) by the impact of an unidentified object.

Cosmos 1443 separated from Salyut 7 on 14 August and, while flying autono­mously, returned its descent capsule containing film and some equipment. It landed 100 km (62 miles) southeast of Arkalyk on 23 August. The major part of Cosmos was destroyed during re-entry on 19 September. Soyuz T9 had been flown from the back of Salyut to the front to prepare for the arrival of Progress 17 on 19 August. Progress left on 17 September, leaving the port free for the Soyuz T10 crew, who were to have been launched on 27 September to help with repairs, including an EVA to correct solar panel problems and add additional panels to increase the electrical supply on board the station.

By this time, Salyut 7 was in pretty bad shape, propellant leaks leaving the station with little manoeuvrability. Salyut’s back-up main engine was also crippled and a solar panel failure had reduced solar power. A major incident occurred on 9 Sep­tember during the refuelling operations by Progress 17. A Salyut fuelling line used to feed oxidiser from the Progress to the Salyut ruptured. With only half of the 32 thrusters working, it seemed likely Salyut would have to be abandoned, but a decision was made to work around the problem and let the current mission continue while options for repair were evaluated. After the Soyuz T10 crew failed to reach orbit following the first on-the-pad launch abort in history, rumours spread in the west that Lyakhov and Aleksandrov were stranded in space, particularly as the Soyuz T9 ferry was exceeding its 115-day lifetime, according to the rumours, which created sensa­tional press stories.

The flight continued, and a Progress ferry craft was launched to Salyut, on 21 October, carrying new solar panels, fuel and equipment. It also provided a means of propulsion for the crippled station. The crew even made two spacewalks on 1 and 3 November, lasting 2 hours 50 minutes and 2 hours 55 minutes respectively, to erect new solar panels, while cosmonauts Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov carried out a simulated EVA at the same time in the neutral buoyancy tank at Star City. The two cosmonauts on Salyut had not trained to perform such complicated EVAs and struggled to complete the tasks, as reflected in the durations of each spacewalk. The tasks had originally been planned to be completed during one EVA, but were spread over two EVAs due to the cosmonauts’ inexperience. First-time space explorer Alexandrov was amazed by the whole experience of EVA and at one point casually discarded a small unwanted item into space to see what happened. This earned him a rebuke from Mission Control, who feared confusing the station’s stellar orientation system into “thinking” that the light refection from the object might be a star. Progress separated on 13 November and the so-called doomed cosmonauts made an unheralded landing on 23 November, at T + 149 days 10 hours 46 minutes. Maximum altitude reached in the 51.6° orbit was 354 km (220 miles). The unexpected extension to the mission had gave rise to concerns over the reliability of Soyuz T in supporting a crew after such a long time in space. Soyuz T9 proved such fears were unfounded, however, and the recovery occurred without incident, giving great con­fidence for longer Soyuz T-supported station residences.

Milestones

92nd manned space flight

54th Soviet manned space flight

47th manned Soyuz space flight

8th manned Soyuz T space flight

7th Soviet and 23rd flight with EVA operations

Lyakhov celebrates his 42nd birthday in space (20 July)

Flight Crew

HARTSFIELD, Henry Warren “Hank”, 51, USAF, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-4 (1982); STS 41-D (1984)

NAGEL, Steven Ray, 39, USAF, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 51-D (1985)

DUNBAR, Bonnie Jean, 36, civilian, mission specialist 1

BUCHLI, James Frederick, 40, USMC, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission

Previous mission: STS 51-C (1985)

BLUFORD, Guion Stewart, 41, USAF, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-8 (1983)

MESSERSCHMID, Ernst Willi, civilian, payload specialist 1 FURRER, Reinhard, 44, civilian, payload specialist 2 OCKELS, Wubbo, 39, civilian, payload specialist 3

Flight Log

The STS 61-A mission carrying a Spacelab Long Module was chartered by West Germany for $175 million, contributing most of the 76 scientific experiments and two payload specialists – who preferred to be called payload scientists – to the seven-day expedition. The first flight by eight crew members included five NASA astronauts, two Germans and the first space-flying Dutchman, Wubbo Ockels. Pilot Steve Nagel, former mission specialist of 51-G, was flying again after only 128 days since his previous mission, a record turnaround. The Spacelab experiment operations were controlled by the West German DFVLR centre, near Munich, via the TDRS 1 and Intelsat satellites. Lift-off came at 12:00 hrs from Pad 39A and Challenger rolled on to its launch azimuth in dramatic fashion, heading towards its 57° inclination orbit, which would have a highest point of 288 km (179 miles).

A few technical problems, including communications, RCS thruster and fuel cell anomalies, delayed the entry into Spacelab by over three hours, but soon a 24-hour

round-the-clock regime of experimental work began, with the crew split into two shifts. They were aided when required by commander Hank Hartsfield and payload specialist Ockels, who overworked early in the mission and was ordered to rest. A unique experiment was the Space Sled, which was designed to investigate the reactions and adaptation of the human balance and orientation functions. It was moved backwards and forwards along a 7 m (23 ft) long track in the module. The Spacelab D1 programme included experiments in basic and applied microgravity research in materials science, life sciences and technology, communications and navigation.

Another first was achieved at the end of the 7 day 0 hour 44 minute 51 second mission, on runway 17 at Edwards Air Force Base, when Hartsfield conducted a computer-controlled nosewheel steering test, deliberately steering up to 10 m (33 ft) off the centre line, to gain data on ways of eliminating excessive brake and tyre wear, such as that suffered by Discovery at the end of the 51-D Kennedy landing the previous April. The Spacelab D1 mission was considered a great success, so much so that West Germany booked a repeat mission for five years time (which actually flew eight years later).

Milestones

112th manned space flight

53rd US manned space flight

22nd Shuttle flight

9th flight of Challenger

3rd Spacelab Long Module mission

1st flight with eight crew members

1st flight by a Dutchman

1st commercially leased manned space flight

1st flight by two West Germans

1st US flight to be controlled outside the USA

Flight Crew

WETHERBEE, James D., 39, USN, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-32 (1990)

BAKER, Michael A., 38, USN, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-43 (1991)

VEACH, Lacy, 49, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-39 (1991)

SHEPHERD, William Michael, 43, USN, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-27 (1988); STS-41 (1990)

JERNIGAN, Tamara E., 32, civilian, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-40 (1991)

MACLEAN, Steven Glenwood, 37, civilian, Canadian payload specialist 1

Flight Log

The original mid-October launch date for STS-52 slipped when it was decided to exchange No. 3 SSME over concerns about possible cracks in the LH coolant manifold on the engine nozzle. The revised launch on 22 October was delayed by two hours due to crosswinds at the Shuttle Landing Facility, violating the Return-To – Launch-Site criteria. There were also heavy clouds at the Banjul trans-oceanic abort landing site. Despite concerns about the weather, the decision was made to proceed with the launch, in spite of higher than permitted wind speeds at launch. This caused some controversy at the time, but NASA stated that they felt the launch was safe and was performed within the intent of the rule.

Once in orbit, the crew activated the USMP-1 payload, which contained three experiments mounted on two MPESS structures in the payload bay. The Lambda Point Experiment studied the properties of liquid helium in microgravity, while the

The Space Vision System (SVS) experiment is seen in the grasp of the RMS above the payload bay. Target spots placed on the Canadian Target Assembly (CTA) satellite were photographed and monitored as the arm moved around the payload bay holding the satellite. Computers measured the changing position of the dot pattern and provided real-time TV display of location and orientation of the CTA. This was an evaluation to aide future RMS operations in guiding the RMS more precisely during berthing and deployment activities

French Space Agency (CNES) and French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA)- sponsored Material pour L’Etude des Phenomenes Interessant la Solidification sur Terre et en Orbite (MEPHISTO) included crystal growth experiments. The Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS) had flown on previous Shuttle missions to measure and record accelerations which could affect onboard experiments. Located in the payload bay of the orbiter and operated by ground-based science teams indepen­dently of the flight crew, these experiments were a “dress rehearsal” for telescience operations on space station and other free-flying satellites.

The LAGEOS II satellite was successfully deployed at the end of FD 1 by spin stabilisation. Two subsequent firings of the solid rocket stages placed the geodynamics satellite in its 5,900 km orbit inclined at 52° to the equator. The previous satellite, LAGEOS I, which had been launched on a Delta expendable launch vehicle in 1976, was located at 110° inclination. The 426 laser reflectors on LAGEOS II provided accurate mapping of the Earth’s surface by using ground-based laser ranging systems and ground-based tracking stations worldwide. The possible applications for data collected by LAGEOS included calculations of the shifting of crustal plates, as well as rotation rates, tides and polar motion of the Earth. This data was also beneficial for global monitoring of regional fault movements in earthquake-prone areas of the Earth. By having two satellites in orbit, the data could be cross-referenced for confirmation and greater accuracy. The satellite was a joint project between NASA and the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI), the Italian Space Agency. The upper stage used for deployment of the satellite was the Italian Research Interim Stage (IRIS), also built by ASI and being evaluated on this flight for the first time for potential use on future Shuttle missions as an operational upper stage.

Canadian PS MacLean was responsible for the Canadian Experiments-2 (CANEX-2) programme of seven experiments, located both in the cargo bay and on the mid-deck of Columbia. His programme continued and expanded upon the work begun by Canadian astronauts aboard STS 41-G (Garneau) and STS-42 (Bondar), as part of Canadian involvement in Shuttle and Space Station operations. The primary experiment in the CANEX-2 package was the Space Vision System (SVS), in which a computerised “eye’’ would assist an astronaut in operating the RMS in situations where light or field of vision was restricted. The remaining CANEX-2 experiments included research into materials exposure (sample plates attached to the Canadian-built RMS), liquid-metal diffusion, phase partitioning in liquids, measure­ments of the Sun, photo-spectrometer in the atmosphere, the orbiter glow phenomena and space adaptation tests and observations.

The crew also worked with a number of mid-deck and payload bay secondary experiments, including the ESA-supplied ASP, a three-independent-sensor package that was designed to determine spacecraft orientation. There was also an experiment to control pressure in cryogenic fuel tanks in low gravity (which would have applica­tion to Space Station and long-duration space systems operations), protein crystal growth experiments, fluid mixing in microgravity, heat pipe performance in space, an experiment to study the proprietary protein molecule on twelve rodents, and an investigation into Shuttle RCS plume burn contamination.

One of the more challenging aspects of this mission regarding the payload was whether the capability of the Shuttle was being fully utilised on this flight. Commander Wetherbee commented from space that the experiment package his crew were dealing with was imposing time and power constraints on the mission, and that the crew were having a tough time staying out of each other’s way while performing the mid-deck experiments. That the mission was so successful was made possible by very good pre-flight planning of both crew and experiment time.

Milestones

155th manned space flight

81st US manned space flight

51st Shuttle mission

13th flight of Columbia

1st flight of USMP payload

1st flight of Italian IRIS upper stage on Shuttle

Baker celebrates his 39th birthday in space (27 Oct)

Flight Crew

BAKER, Michael Allen, 40, USN, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-43 (1991); STS-52 (1992)

WILCUTT, Terrence Wade, 44, USMC, pilot SMITH, Steven Lee, 35, civilian, mission specialist 1 BURSCH, Daniel Wheeler, 37, USN, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-51 (1993)

WISOFF, Peter Jeffrey Karl, 36, civilian, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-57 (1993)

JONES, Thomas David, 39, civilian, mission specialist 4, payload commander, 2nd mission

Previous mission: STS-59 (1994)

Flight Log

After the success of SRL-1, it was hoped that the second mission in the series would be equally rewarding. In order to ensure a smooth (and shorter) flow between the missions, it was decided to place the payload in the same orbiter (Endeavour) and to assign MS Tom Jones from the STS-59 crew as payload commander for STS-68. Endeavour returned from Edwards on 2 May and the SRL payload was removed from the vehicle in the Orbiter Processing Facility on 8 May for inspection, cleaning and maintenance. It was returned to the payload bay on 21 June and by 27 July, Endeavour was back on the pad, ready to support a planned 18 August launch. That attempt was scrubbed at T — 1.9 seconds, when the orbiter’s computers shut down the three SSMEs after they had detected unacceptably high discharge temperatures in the high-pressure oxidiser turbine for SSME #3. This required a return to the VAB to replace all three engines. The launch was rescheduled for 30 September.

Following the format of SRL-1, the crew of STS-68, working a single-shift system, soon settled down to operate their main payload and host of other mid-deck and secondary experiments once on orbit. The same 400 sites and 19 “super-sites” were targeted as on SRL-1 to provide comparison data during a different season. Unfortu­nately, there would be no SRL-3 mission to provide a third set of data from a different time of the year (December or January). In addition to the programme’s scheduled activities, the crew took the opportunity to record other images and impressions of Earth’s weather and environmental conditions, including the eruption of the Kliuchevskoi volcano in Kamchatka. They also studied fires in British Columbia, Canada (which had been set for forest management purposes) and used the MAPS equipment to take readings to better understand the carbon monoxide emissions from burning fires.

As well as flying over the same places as on the STS-59 mission (at one point flying the Endeavour just nine metres from where it had flown the previous April), by making small changes to their orbit, the STS-68 crew could take images of areas they had flown over just 24 or 48 hours previously. These interferometric passes were made over central North America, the Amazonian rain forests of Brazil in South America, and the volcanoes in the Kamchatka peninsula in Russia. Images like these taken over long periods of time could provide important data on the movements of the Earth’s surface – of even a few centimetres – that could be invaluable in detecting the pre­emptive changes in volcanoes or movements in major fault lines prior to earthquakes.

One of the radar observations was of a man-made phenomenon, a deliberate and controlled spillage of oil in the North Sea. This was designed to see if the radar could determine the difference between oil spills and naturally produced fish and plankton oils. Four hundred litres of diesel oil and 100 litres of algae-produced natural oil were dumped into the water for comparison. After the data was collected, it took just two hours for the stand-by recovery vessels to clean up the spillages.

After a one-day extension to the mission, STS-68 was diverted to Edwards from KSC because of bad weather in the vicinity of the Cape. Post-flight evaluation of the mission revealed that there had been 923 attempted data sweeps, of which 910 were successful (98.59%). Of the 292 “super-site” data-gathering attempts, the crew achieved 289 takes (98.97%) and from the 724 X-SAR attempts, 719 were acquired (99.31%). The volume of data collected equated to approximately 25,000 encyclo­paedic volumes worth. STS-68 had gathered data from 83 million km2, or about nine per cent of the total Earth surface. Though SRL-3 was not flown, the data from the first two missions would help in planning the SRTM mission flown in 2000.

Milestones

173rd manned space flight

95th US manned space flight

65th Shuttle mission

7th flight of Endeavour

2nd flight of SRL payload combination

Flight Crew

BOWERSOX, Kenneth Duane, 40, USN, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-50 (1992); STS-61 (1993); STS-73 (1995) HOROWITZ, Scott Jay, 39, USAF, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-75 (1996)

TANNER, Joseph Richard, 47, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-66 (1994)

HAWLEY, Steven Alan, 45, civilian, mission specialist 2, 4th mission Previous missions: STS 41-D (1984); STS 61-C (1986); STS-31 (1990) HARBAUGH, Gregory Jordan, 39, civilian, mission specialist 3, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-39 (1991); STS-54 (1993); STS-71 (1995)

LEE, Mark Charles, 44, USAF, mission specialist 4, payload commander, 4th mission

Previous missions: STS-30 (1989); STS-47 (1992); STS-64 (1994)

SMITH, Steven Lee, 38, civilian, mission specialist 5, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-68 (1994)

Flight Log

This was the first flight of Discovery after returning from its maintenance down period. The launch had been scheduled for 13 February but was moved up two days to give more flexibility. This mission was the second servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, this time to upgrade and maintain the facility for further orbital use. It would also demonstrate the unique capability of the Shuttle to serve as a satellite­servicing vehicle, and the importance of having humans aboard to respond to un­planned activities. Four EVAs were scheduled, and a fifth was added to repair insulation material on the telescope.

Hubble was recaptured by the RMS and placed in Discovery’s payload bay on 13 February. Lee (EV1) and Smith (EV2) participated in EVAs 1, 3 and 5, while

A wide-angle view of the HST in Discovery’s payload bay high over Australia during the fifth and final EVA of the STS-82 mission. Steve Smith (centre) and Mark Lee (on RMS) are conducting a survey of handrails on the telescope. In the foreground is the hatch that provides access to the airlock and crew compartment of the Shuttle

Harbaugh (EV3) and Tanner (EV4) conducted EVAs 2 and 4. When one EVA crew was outside, the other provided IV support and EVA choreography, as well as resting and preparing their own EVA equipment for their next excursion. There were over 150 tools and crew aids available to the EVA astronauts on this flight.

During the first EVA, the astronauts replaced the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) and Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) with the new Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS). The second EVA saw the replacement of the Far Guidance System (FGS) and out-of-date recorders. The astronauts also installed the Optical Control Electronics Enhancement Kit (OCE-EK). It was on this EVA that cracking and wear to the telescope’s insulation material on the Sun-facing side in the direction of orbital travel was noted. EVA 3 was used to replace the older reel-to-reel Engin­eering and Science Data Recorders (ESDR) with new solid state data recorders. The Data Interface Unit (DIU) was also replaced, as was one of the four Reaction Wheel Assembly Units used to generate spin momentum both to move the telescope and to keep it stable. At the end of this EVA, mission managers decided to add a fifth EVA to repair the thermal insulation damage that had been discovered earlier.

During EVA 4, the Solar Array Drive Electronics (SADE) were replaced and new covers were placed over the magnetometers. The astronauts also installed thermal blankets of multi-layered material over two areas where the insulation had degraded. This was around the light shield section of the instrument near the top of the telescope. While Harbaugh and Tanner were completing this EVA, Horowitz and Lee worked inside Discovery to fabricate new insulation blankets for the telescope from spare material carried on the mid-deck. The fifth and final EVA saw the attachment of several thermal blankets to three equipment compartments at the top of the Support System Module, which contained key data-processing, electronics and scientific instrument and telemetry packages. At the close of this final excursion outside, the astronauts had logged 33 hours 11 minutes of total EVA time.

During the time the telescope was attached to the payload bay, Discovery’s manoeuvring engines were fired several times to raise the orbit by 8 nautical miles. The telescope was released on 19 February into its highest orbit to date, of 599 km x 620 km. The landing of Discovery was on the second attempt for 21 February, after the initial opportunity was waived off due to low clouds. The next planned Hubble service missions were manifested for 1999 and 2002.

Milestones

196th manned space flight

112th US manned space flight

82nd Shuttle mission

22nd flight of Discovery

2nd HST Service Mission

35th US and 65th flight with EVA operations

Bowersox exceeds 1,000 hours in space

Flight Crew

HALSELL Jr., James Donald, 40, USAF, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-65 (1994); STS-74 (1995)

STILL, Susan Leigh, 35, USN, pilot

VOSS, Janice Elaine, 40, civilian, mission specialist 1, payload commander,

3rd mission

Previous missions: STS-57 (1993); STS-63 (1995)

GERNHARDT, Michael Landen, 40, civilian, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-69 (1995)

THOMAS, Donald Alan, 41, civilian, mission specialist 3, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-65 (1994); STS-70 (1995)

CROUCH, Roger Keith, 57, civilian PhD, payload specialist 1 LINTERIS, Gregory Thomas, 39, civilian, payload specialist 2

Flight Log

The original launch on 3 April was delayed by 24 hours on 1 April after it became necessary to add extra thermal insulation to a water coolant line in Columbia’s payload bay. There was concern that there was insufficient insulation and that the line might freeze while in orbit. A further 20.5 minute delay on launch day was caused by the need to replace the orbiter access hatch seal.

The mission was planned for sixteen days, supported by an EDO kit. However, when a sudden upward voltage trend was noted in Fuel Cell 2 shortly after reaching orbit, mission rules were implemented and meant an early termination of the flight. Though the vehicle could fly safely on two fuel cells, mission rules state that all three fuel cells need to be operating well to ensure crew safety and provide sufficient back-up capacity during re-entry and landing. Similar problems had been noted with this fuel cell during launch check-ups, but tests cleared the unit for flight. Measures to address

the problem on orbit were to no avail and on 6 April, the mission management team opted to terminate the mission at the earliest point.

The crew had been able to conduct some science in the Spacelab module despite the early return. Some of the materials processing experiments and fire-related experiments were conducted, but most of the experiments on board the science labora­tory had not been fully activated when the call came to shorten the mission. Shortly after landing, the mission management team indicated that a re-flight of the mission was possible despite an extremely tight manifest for the rest of the year. Halsell commented that his crew had just completed the best training session possible in order to fly – they trained in space!

NASA began to evaluate manifesting STS-83R (Re-flight) to fly after the next Shuttle-Mir docking mission (STS-84), which was scheduled for May. By 24 April, the mission had been re-designated STS-94 (the next available flight number in the manifest) and the remaining 1997 missions were adjusted to accommodate the extra flight.

This would be one of the quickest turnarounds in Shuttle history and the first time a complete crew would re-fly intact and return to orbit to complete an abbreviated mission. By using the same orbiter, configured the same way, and flying the same crew, considerable time would be saved in processing the launch.

Post-flight tests indicated that an undetermined and isolated incident had caused a slight change in the voltage in about 25 per cent of the 96 cells that comprised the fuel cell generation unit, rather than a complete cell failure as at first suspected. More monitoring would be introduced on future missions, as it was determined that Columbia could have flown its full mission without problems. In light of the Challenger accident, the question of safety was raised given the quick turnaround plan, but an independent aerospace safety advisory panel recommended that NASA was capable of quickly flying Columbia again without placing undue risks on the crew or the vehicle.

Milestones

197th manned space flight

113th US manned space flight

83rd Shuttle mission

22nd flight of Columbia

14th flight of Spacelab Long Module

3rd shortened Shuttle mission

10th EDO mission (planned)

Flight Crew

WILCUTT, Terence Wade, 50, USMC, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-68 (1994); STS-79 (1996); STS-89 (1998)

ALTMAN, Scott Douglas, 41, USN, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-90 (1998)

LU, Edward Tsang, 37, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-84 (1997)

MASTRACCHIO, Richard Alan, 40, civilian, mission specialist 2 BURBANK, Daniel Christopher, 39, USCG, mission specialist 3 MALENCHENKO, Yuri Ivanovich, 38, Russian Air Force, mission specialist 4, 2nd mission

Previous mission: Soyuz TM19 (1994)

MORUKOV, Boris Vladimirovich, 49, civilian, Russian, mission specialist 5

Flight Log

The Russian Service Module Zvezda docked to the aft port of Zarya on 26 July 2000, and was followed by Progress M1-3 at the aft port of Zvezda on 8 August. Zvezda was critical to the early occupation of ISS because it provided flight control and orbit maintenance functions. Zvezda also included the crew quarters for the early resident crews, and EVA facilities prior to the arrival of the airlock modules. With the arrival of Zvezda, a resident crew could remain on the station without the Shuttle being docked to it.

STS-106 docked to Unity on 10 September and remained there for 189 hours, during which the hatches were opened for over 129 hours. On the mission’s only EVA on 10 September (6 hours 14 minutes), Lu (EV1) and Malenchenko (EV2) connected nine power and data communication cables between Zvezda and Zarya as well as installing the station’s compass, a 1.82-metre magnetometer which showed the station in respect to the Earth. They also ventured farther than any tethered crew member had

during a Shuttle EVA, over 30.4 metres above the cargo bay along the side of Zvezda and Zarya.

Work inside the station focused on reconfiguring Zvezda for operational use by removing launch bolts and restraints and installing voltage and current stabilisers inside the module. To save weight at launch, only five of the eight batteries had been installed, and the STS-106 crew installed the other three. They also installed com­ponents of the Elektron system designed to separate water into oxygen and hydrogen. The three tons of logistics transfers and numerous maintenance tasks took up most of the crew’s time during the docked phase. Managers monitoring onboard consumables were able to approve an extra day of docked operations to help ease the burden. The items transferred included six water containers, all of the food stores for the first resident crew, office supplies, onboard environmental supplies, a vacuum cleaner and a computer with monitor.

Atlantis undocked, after a further re-boost to the station’s orbit, on FD 11. This was followed by a fly-around of the station before commencing the preparations for the flight home. This undocking and fly-around manoeuvre, like those during the undocking of the Shuttle from Mir, is normally performed by the Shuttle pilot, giving

them experience in flying the orbiter in preparation for a future rendezvous and docking mission as commander.

Milestones

218th manned space flight 129th US manned space flight 99th Shuttle mission 22nd flight of Atlantis

43rd US and 76th flight with EVA operations 3rd Shuttle ISS mission 2nd Atlantis ISS mission

Flight Crew

DUFFY, Brian, 47, USAF, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-45 (1992); STS-57 (1993); STS-72 (1996)

MELROY, Pamela Ann, 39, USAF, pilot

CHIAO, Leroy, 40, civilian, mission specialist 1, 3rd mission

Previous mission: STS-65 (1994); STS-72 (1996)

McARTHUR Jr., William Surles, 49, US Army, mission specialist 2,

3rd mission

Previous missions: STS-58 (1993); STS-74 (1995)

WISOFF, Peter Jeffrey Karl, 42, civilian, mission specialist 3, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-57 (1993); STS-68 (1994); STS-81 (1997) LOPEZ-ALEGRIA, Michael Eladio, 42, USN, mission specialist 4, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-73 (1995)

WAKATA, Koichi, 37, civilian, Japanese, mission specialist 5, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-72 (1996)

Flight Log

The original launch date for this mission (5 October) was rescheduled to 9 October when film reviews of the STS-106 launch revealed that the right-hand ET-to-orbiter attach bolt had failed to retract correctly. While this problem was being resolved, an orbiter LO pogo accumulator re-circulation valve located in the MPS failed to respond correctly and required replacement. The second launch attempt was post­poned due to high winds at the pad area preventing the safe fuelling of the ET. The following day, a ground support equipment pin and tether, used on access platforms, was observed on the ET-to-orbiter LO feed line. Because of the risk of potential damage during launch, a further 24-hour delay was called.

Discovery docked with ISS on 13 October and remained there for the next 165 hours. However, such was the EVA demand on this crew that only 27 hours

As Discovery separates from ISS, a crew member records this view with the new additions visible. At the top, most of the Z1 Truss is visible, while in the centre is the PMA-2 on the Unity Node, and beneath is the newly installed PMA-3 also on Unity. The solar arrays are on the Russian segment was spent with internal hatches into ISS open. With the docking achieved, the crew used the RMS to lift the Zenith (Zl) Truss from the payload bay and onto the uppermost (zenith) docking port of Unity. Once completed, the crew confirmed the integrity of the seals and then opened the internal upper hatch to secure grounding connections between the Truss and the station. With that task completed, the EVA programme could begin.

The EVAs were completed by two pairs of astronauts. Chiao (EVl) and McArthur (EV2) performed the first and third excursions (15 Oct for 6 hours 28 minutes, and 17 Oct for 6 hours 48 minutes), while Wisoff (EV3) and Lopez-Alegria (EV4) completed the second and fourth (16 Oct for 7 hours 7 minutes, and 18 Oct for 6 hours 56 minutes). Both teams supported each other’s EVAs from inside the orbiter. During the EVAs, the crews connected electrical umbilicals for power to heaters and electrical conduits in the Zl Truss, relocated two communication antennas and installed a tool box for use during future on-orbit construction activities. On the second EVA, the PMA-3 was installed on Unity and the Zl Truss was prepared for the future attachment of solar arrays, beginning with the flight of STS-97. The astronauts also installed two DC-to-DC-converters on top of the Zl Truss which converted electricity generated by the solar arrays to the correct voltage. They tested a manual berthing mechanism, deployed a tray that would provide power for the US Labora­tory Module (scheduled for delivery on STS-98) and remove a grapple feature from Zl. They also performed further tests of the SAFER units.

Following the completion of the EVAs, the crew began work inside the station, continuing the transfer of supplies and logistics for the first resident crew, who were scheduled to be the next docking mission at the station. The STS-92 crew also successfully tested the four control moment gyros used to orientate the station as it orbits the Earth. Microbial samples were taken from surfaces inside the station to check for contamination and they cleaned surfaces and storage containers with fungicidal wipes to inhibit microbial growth.

The original landing attempts on 22 October were waived off due to excessive crosswinds at the SLF. The winds remained high for the aborted 23 October landing attempt at the Cape and rain within the 50 km limit at Edwards meant the crew had to spend another day in space. With excessive winds still preventing any landing at the Cape, the rain at Edwards held off to allow the Shuttle to land there instead.

Milestones

2l9th manned space flight

l30th US manned space flight

l00th Shuttle mission

28th flight of Discovery

44th US and 77th flight with EVA operations

5th Shuttle ISS mission

2nd Discovery ISS mission

Flight Crew

MALENCHENKO, Yuri Ivanovich, 41, Russian Air Force, ISS-7 and Soyuz commander, 3rd mission

Previous missions: Soyuz TM19 (1994); STS-101 (2000)

LU, Edward Tsang, 39, civilian, US ISS-7 science officer, 3rd mission Previous mission: STS-84 (1997); STS-101 (2000)

Flight Log

With the loss of Columbia in February 2003, it would be necessary to use the Soyuz TMA spacecraft to launch and return resident crews to the station for the time being until the Shuttle was declared operational again. Due to the limited supply capability for replenishing logistics on the station with the Shuttle fleet grounded, it was also determined that resident crews would now consist of only two persons, launched to the station every six months. The pairing would consist of one American and one Russian crew member, rotating the command position with each mission. The pre­viously identified three-person ISS crews were reassigned as two-person teams, and the third seat was assigned to European astronauts flying short visiting missions during the exchange of crews for the time being. As the crews and launch manifest were changed and America began the investigation into the STS-107 accident, ESA announced that they had delayed the launch of their next astronaut to ISS for six months under agreement with Russia. Therefore, TMA2 would fly with only the two ISS-7 crew members aboard for six-month residency, with no planned EVAs and no other visitors.

The two crew members would be known as “caretaker” crews, able to maintain the systems of the complex, to prevent unmanned loss of control and to sustain consumables, but with limited capacity to conduct science programmes. The work programme of ISS-7 was designed not to overload the crew, as no two-person crew had resided on the station before. The ISS predecessors, Salyut and Mir, had been operated by two-person crews, but ISS was much larger and more complex. The crew

operated what science experiments were already aboard and continued the pro­gramme of Earth observations, with Lu officially designated the NASA science officer. There were also regular maintenance and housekeeping chores to be accomplished and the crew would receive the Progress Ml-10 and M48 re-supply vehicles. Ed Lu continued the series of personal recollections of events on the station, which were posted on the web.

A demonstration of American EMU suiting was completed on 28 May, proving that the two men could suit up and remove suits without the assistance of a third person, should they be required to complete an emergency EVA. Some of the tasks were postponed due to problems with Lu’s suit that required further investigation, but it was a useful training exercise. In late June, Lu communicated by radio with former ISS-5 science officer Peggy Whitson, who was commanding a diving expedition to the NEEMO undersea habitat. This is used to develop extreme environment exploration techniques, with diving crews including NASA astronauts (both with and without flight experience) and engineers or flight controllers, to compare space flight training and flight experiences to undersea exploration.

On 10 August, “space history” was made when Malenchenko was “married” via a TV a link to his fiancee who was in Houston, Texas. The marriage had been arranged for August prior to Malenchenko being reassigned to the flight as a result of crew reshuffling after Columbia was lost. It was too late to cancel the legalities, so the wedding was authorised, with Lu acting as best man. This history-making event would be the first and last such ceremony according to officials at TsUP, and subsequent cosmonaut contracts would be amended to include a clause that no wedding would be performed while they were in space.

The ISS-8 two-person resident crew arrived at the station in October, along with ESA astronaut Pedro Duque. He would return in TMA2 with the ISS-7 crew. Their landing occurred without incident.

Milestones

238th manned space flight 95th Russian manned space flight 88th manned Soyuz mission 2nd manned Soyuz TMA mission 6th ISS Soyuz mission (6S)

1st resident caretaker ISS crew (2 person)

1st resident crew with no planned EVAs since ISS-1 Lu celebrates 40th birthday in space (1 Jul)

1st space “wedding” (10 Aug)

2003-045A

15 October 2003

Jiuquan Satellite Launch Complex, Gobi Desert region, northwest China

16 October 2003

Dorbod Xi, Siziwang grasslands of the Gobi Desert, Inner Mongolia

CZ-2F Shenjian (Long March) (flight 5)

21 hours 26 minutes Unknown

Man-rating of the Shenzhou spacecraft for human flight; qualification and man-rating of the launch complex, launch spacecraft compatibility, orbital flight re-entry, flight control, and land-based recovery with a human passenger aboard

Flight Crew

YANG, Liwei, 38, Chinese PLA Air Force, command pilot

Flight Log

On 16 October 2003, after years of speculation and months of expectation, China became the third nation to achieve its own manned space flight capability with the launch of Yang Liwei aboard Shenzhou 5. The historic 21.5-hour flight was preceded by four unmanned test flights between November 1999 and January 2003. At the time, China had always stated that its first manned flight would occur before 2005. As the flight of Shenzhou 4 approached, it was indicated that this would be the final unmanned test flight and if successful, the first manned launch would occur before the end of 2003. Following the successful flight of Shenzhou 4, several reports revealed that the hardware was in preparation to support the first manned flight. From the team of yuhangyuans selected for the programme in 1998, a training team of three were selected, one of which would make the initial flight.

In late August 2003, the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft and its CZ-2F launch vehicle were delivered to the vehicle assembly building at the Jiuquan launch site. On 11 October, the stacked vehicle was moved to the launch pad, an operation that took 1 hour and 25 minutes. On 14 October, the training team of three yuhangyuan candidates were revealed to the Chinese press, but only after the prime pilot had been selected. The back-ups were Zhai Zhigang and Nie Haisheng, while the man destined to be the first Chinese national in space was Yang Liwei.

The Fifth Decade: 2001-2006

The final preparations for launch occurred in the early hours of 15 October, with Yang, suited up for the flight, travelling in a transfer bus to the launch site. Yang’s entry into the spacecraft inside the launch shroud was similar to that of the Soyuz cosmonauts, through the Orbital Module and down into the Descent Module. Unlike the Russians however, this event was filmed. In Soyuz, there is simply no room in the crew access area for a camera system to be installed and this process has thus never been seen. For American missions, the launch has always been in full public view; during the Soviet era of launches, everything was kept secret. For the first Chinese manned launch, although the event was well publicised, the launch would not be covered live.

The launch occurred at 09: 00 Beijing Time (BT — GMT + 8 hours). After two minutes, the launch escape tower ejected, no longer needed as the spacecraft could make an emergency return on its own. Sixteen seconds later, the strap-on boosters separated from the first-stage core. At 2 minutes 39 seconds into the flight, the first – stage core was shut down and separated from the vehicle as the second-stage engine and vernier engines took over, propelling the vehicle towards orbit. At 3 minutes 20 seconds, the two halves of the launch shroud used for aerodynamic purposes through the atmosphere were separated. The shut-down of the second stage occurred at 7 minutes 41 seconds Ground Elapsed Time (GET) and for the next 2 minutes 2 seconds, the vernier engines gave the Shenzhou the final nudge into orbit, before shutting down as the spacecraft separated. The launch had taken about 10 minutes. After 22 minutes in orbit, the two pairs of solar panels were deployed by ground command to generate electrical power. One pair was located on the rear Instrument Module, with the other pair on the forward Orbital Module. It had taken 12 years and one month after authorising the Project 921 programme for the first yuhangyuan to finally reach orbit.

Though an Orbital Module was present, it was announced for this flight that Yang would remain in the DM. His flight programme included the operation of a set of instruments and monitoring of space systems and functions. The spacecraft operated primarily on pre-set programmes with little input from the pilot. Tests of the communications system were combined with TV views from inside the spacecraft and outside the window. The flight duration was announced as only one day for this first manned test, but included three meals and two rest periods for the yuhangyuan. Attached to Yang’s body were medical sensors which recorded his condition and transmitted the data to a medical team on Earth. The primary purpose of this mission was to man-rate the spacecraft and system, so extensive operations would wait for later missions. The next important stage was to get Yang home.

On 16 October, following his second rest period, preparations for re-entry and landing began during the fourteenth orbit of the spacecraft. At 05:04 a. m. bt, the command for retrofire to initiate the return to Earth programme was issued from a tracking ship located in the South Atlantic Ocean. About 332 minutes later the OM separated from the spacecraft and continued in orbital flight. Two minutes later, retro – rockets on the spacecraft fired, bringing the spacecraft out of orbit. The Instrument Module was separated about 21 minutes later, as the DM containing Yang plummeted to Earth. Following re-entry, the drogue parachute was deployed 11 minutes after the separation of the modules. The main parachute was deployed five minutes after the drogue and 2 minutes after the heat shield separated from the base of the vehicle. Seven minutes later, at 06: 23 a. m. bt, the Descent Module of Shenzhou 5 landed safely after a flight of 21 hours 26 minutes.

Yang was taken back to Beijing for medical examination and mission debriefings. Now a national hero, from November he began a programme of public appearances as a major personality and the face of China’s manned space programme. While Yang took the Chinese space programme to the public, behind the scenes work continued both for the next flight and also with the OM of Shenzhou 5. The OM, unlike that of Soyuz, was capable of independent manoeuvrable flight for some months, and Shenzhou 5’s OM was packed with instruments and equipment that were tested after the yuhangyuan had returned to Earth, for about six months. These modules are expected to be of significance on future flights in the series, and are linked to the expected Chinese national space station programme.

Milestones

239th manned space flight

1st Chinese manned space flight

1st manned flight of CZ-2F launch vehicle

3rd nation to develop independent manned orbital flight

5th flight of Shenzhou spacecraft

1st manned flight of Shenzhou

Table В.1. Duration log April 1961-September 2006.

Order of most spaceflight experience, up to 29 September 2006 and the end of ISS Expedition 13.

Notes

1 Does not include September 1983 launch pad abort

2 In Space aboard ISS-14

3 Includes STS-107 duration up to loss of signal

4 Includes 5 Apr Anomaly – Soyuz 18-1 launch abort

5 Includes X-15 flights, three times 10 minutes

6 Includes Mercury 3 sub-orbital flight

7 Inclusive of STS 51-L time through loss of signal

8 Includes Mercury 4 sub-orbital flight

9 Includes Spaceship One flight two times 24 minutes

10 Includes Spaceship One flight

11 Includes X-15 flight, two times 10 minutes

12 Includes X-15 flight, 10 minutes

All flights into space from 12 April 1961 (over 50 miles or 80m) or accidents of intended orbital missions in progress are included. Launch pad aborts prior to launch are not included.

All data correct up to 29 September 2006.

Listings include

1961 Mercury 3 and Mercury 4 completed NASA sub-orbital flights

1962-1968 Thirteen X-15 missions that exceeded 50 mile (80 km) altitude 1975 Soyuz 18-1 launch abort – Mission in progress

1986 STS 51-L Challenger. Mission in progress

2003 STS 107 Columbia – Mission in progress

2004 3 Spaceship One test and X-Prize private commercial flights that exceeded 100-km altitude

Listings do not include

X-15 flights that did not exceed 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Apollo 1 pad fire – pre-mission training simulation Soyuz T10-1 pad abort – mission aborted prior to lift off. Five Shuttle pad aborts prior to SRB ignition

Table В.2. EVA duration log April 1961-September 2006.

Order of most spaceflight experience, up to 29 September 2006 and the end of ISS Expedition 13. Includes all IVAs.

The X-15, whose programme operated between June 1959 and October 1968, was a rocket-powered aircraft built by North American Aviation. The programme was operated as a joint NASA/USAF/USN venture, for aeronautical research at speeds in excess of Mach 6 and altitudes up to and beyond 50 miles. The fastest recorded speed was eventually 4,520 mph (Mach 6.7) and the highest altitude achieved was 354,200 feet (66.8 miles).

Date Free-flight Pilot Aircraft Altitude (miles)

1962 Jul 17 62 White 3 59.16 (95.18km)

First FAI-certified world altitude record; 3 aborts preceded the attempt. The rocket engine fired for one second longer than planned resulting in a speed 248mph (399kph) faster than planned. At peak altitude White could see a panorama that stretched from San Francisco in California down to Mexico.

1963 Jan 17 77 Walker 3 51 (82.05km)

Walker’s flight was to study the handling of the X-15 without its ventral fin at extreme altitudes and to conduct an infra-red experiment.

1963 Jun 27 87 Rushworth 3 55 (88.49km)

This flight was aimed at providing the pilot with experience of high-altitude handling and phenomena.

1963 Jul 19 90 Walker 3 65.3 (105.06 km)

On this flight, Walker was to study the expansion of the airframe during re-entry with the ventral fin removed. He also deployed and towed a nitrogen-filled balloon and conducted horizon-scanning, photo­metric, infra-red and ultraviolet observations, all in ten minutes.

1963 Aug 22 91 Walker 3 66.75 (107.40km)

Walker’s third “astro-flight’’ reached the highest altitude attained by an X-15 in 199 free-flights. He also attained a speed of Mach 5.58 (3,794mph or 6,104.5kph).

1965 Jun 29 138 Engle 3 53.14 (85.50 km)

Engle’s first “astro-flight’’ included a horizon-scanning experiment.

1965 Aug 10 143 Engle 3 51.7 (83.18km)

Engle’s second ‘‘astro-flight’’ occurred just 8 months prior to his selection as a NASA astronaut. He was the first astronaut selected who already held ‘‘astronaut-pilot wings’’.

1965 Sep 29 150 McKay 3 56 (90.10km)

After surviving a crash of the X-15 #2 aircraft that almost killed him in 1962, McKay finally completed an ‘‘astro-flight’’ which investigated boundary-layer noise and structural loads on the horizontal tail, as well as horizon-scanning experiments.

1965 Oct 14 153 Engle 1 50.17 (80.72km)

In his third ‘‘astro-flight’’, Engle completed a programme that included taking measurements of atmo­spheric pressure and further experiments in the scanning of Earth’s horizon.

1966 Nov 1 174 Dana 3 58 (93.32km)

This flight included the objectives of collecting micrometeorites, and tests of a dual-channel radiometer and a tip-pod accelerometer. Precise measurements of the attitude and density of the atmosphere were also taken.

1967 Oct 17 190 Knight 3 53.4 (85.92km)

Further collection of micrometeorites, the recording of wing-tip pod deflection during re-entry, observations of the ultraviolet plume of the XLR99 rocket exhaust, and studies of the solar spectrum above 200,000ft (60,960 metres) were all objectives assigned to this mission.

1967 Nov 15 191 Adams 3 50.4 (81.09 km)

The scientific objectives of this 12th ‘‘astro-flight’’ of the programme, included a UV study of the rocket exhaust plume, observations of the solar spectrum and the bow shockwave of the wing-tip pod. Nose-gear loads were to be observed, micrometeoroids collected and an ablative material tested for use on the Saturn 5 booster. Adams was killed on this flight and was awarded his USAF Astronaut Wings posthumously.

1968 Aug 21 197 Knight 1 50.7 (81.57km)

The final X-15 ‘‘astro-flight’’ was just two missions prior to the end of the programme. The planned 200th flight was cancelled. In 199 free-flight missions, the three X-15s had logged 30 hours 13 minutes 49.4 sec­onds in flight and had flown 41,763.8 miles (67,197.95 km). Pilot experience at Mach 4 was almost 6 hours, with a further 90 minutes at Mach 5 and 78 seconds at Mach 6.

Fifteen pilots were selected to fly the X-15, although there was no formal selection process. They were all qualified test pilots prior to assignment to the programme. Eventually, only twelve flew X-15 missions, of which there were 199 completed by the three X-15 vehicles. In addition, several captive flights were executed, where the X-15 was not released from under the wing of the B-52 launch aircraft.

Although not considered as a spacecraft, the X-15 did operate in a region of the upper atmosphere whose conditions were only fractionally different from those encountered by a vehicle in Earth orbit. In the early 1960s, the USAF had declared that flights above 50 miles (80.45 km) would be classified as a space flight. They would award USAF Astronaut Wings to honour those USAF pilots that attained this altitude. In contrast, the Federation Aeronautique International (FAI), the inter­national aeronautical record-keeping body, decided that flights over 100 kilometres (or 62 miles) would be classified as space flights.

Of the 199 X-15 flights, thirteen surpassed the 50-mile altitude barrier, and these have been designated astro-flights, rather than space flights. Eight of the X-15 pilots (Walker, White, Rushworth, Engle, McKay, Dana, Knight and Adams) flew these thirteen missions. Of these, only five (White, Rushworth, Engle, Knight and Adams) were USAF pilots who received the USAF wings. The remaining three (Walker, McKay and Dana) were civilians and did not qualify for the USAF title. However, Walker completed two X-15 flights in excess of the FAI qualification altitude.