Category Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961-2006

Flight Crew

NIKOLAYEV, Andrian Grigoryevich, 40, Soviet Air Force, commander, 2nd mission

Previous mission: Vostok 3 (1962)

SEVASTYANOV, Vitaly Ivanovich, 34, civilian, flight engineer

Flight Log

The Soviet Union’s first long-duration biomedical space mission, Soyuz 9, blasted away from Baikonur’s Pad 1 at 00: 00 hrs local time, the first manned launch at night, and was placed into a 51.6° orbit. During one of the five in-orbit changes, it reached a maximum altitude of 259 km (161 miles). In addition to medical experiments, includ­ing a torso harness which placed a load of about 40 kg (85 lb) on the cosmonaut’s body, and other exercising equipment, the crew of Andrian Nikolayev and Vitaly Sevastyanov made several meteorological and geological observations in the relatively spacious Orbital Module. These were thwarted to a degree by a spacecraft window that had been smeared by the plume from an engine firing. These observations were compared with simultaneous observations by satellites, ships and aircraft. The crew also tested a new orientation system based on star-lock navigation, using the bright stars Canopus and Vega. After setting a new world space endurance record, Soyuz 9 came home to a “sniper accurate’’ landing in a ploughed field, 75 km (47 miles) west of Karaganda at T + 17 days 16 hours 58 minutes 50 seconds.

Doctors were keen to see whether the exercise regime and spaciousness of the Soyuz had allowed the cosmonauts to overcome what was thought to be difficult re­adaptation to gravity. However, as both cosmonauts were so busy they began avoiding the exercise programme and, despite a rebuke from mission control, never managed to return to the planned schedule. Both cosmonauts complained of feeling extraordinarily heavy and had to be carried out of the Soyuz 9 descent capsule. They were kept under close medical supervision for ten days, complaining of feeling twice their real weight, walking with difficulty, becoming flushed and breathing heavily.

They even stumbled up stairs. Nikolayev was moved to express extreme pessimism about the possibilities of long-duration space flights. He need not have worried, because the reason for their discomfort was that Soyuz 9 had been in a partial, intermittent, gravity-inducing controlled spin throughout the mission, and it was this that had caused most of their problems. Their lack of regular daily exercise was also a factor in their physical condition upon return. However, this challenging and difficult mission was a wholly successful one, and an important stepping stone towards starting the space station programme the following year.

Milestones

39th manned space flight

16th Soviet manned space flight

8th Soyuz manned space flight

1st night launch of a manned space flight

Flight Crew

HARTSFIELD, Henry Warren “Hank”, 50, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-4 (1982)

COATS, Michael Lloyd, 38, USN, pilot MULLANE, Richard Michael, 38, USAF, mission specialist 1 HAWLEY, Steven Alan, 32, civilian, mission specialist 2 RESNIK, Judith Arlene, 35, civilian, mission specialist 3 WALKER, Charles David, 36, civilian, payload specialist

Flight Log

Scheduled for 25 June 1984, the first flight of the new orbiter Discovery was to clock up another first in space, with the transportation of the first fare-paying payload specialist. McDonnell Douglas paid NASA about $30,000 to fly Charles Walker to operate the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System experiment, which he had helped to develop. CFES had flown before but McDonnell Douglas and NASA, both seeing the commercial possibilities, felt that CFES was on the verge of producing biological materials which could form the basis of a huge pharmaceutical space processing industry.

Walker also became the first payload specialist to make a late entry into a flight crew, which otherwise consisted of NASA career astronauts from the Group 8 cadre, which Walker himself had failed to join, and who had waited much longer to be assigned to a mission. The first launch attempt, already delayed three days, was stopped at T — 6 min by a fault in the fifth general purpose computer, and one day later, 2.6 seconds into main engine start for Discovery on Pad 39A on 26 June, engines three and two had ignited when both shut down with an alarming metallic graunching sound after the SSME 3 main fuel valve actuator channel A failed. This was the first launch pad abort in the Shuttle programme and the first in the US since

Gemini 6 in December 1965. The abort was followed by a scare when residual hydrogen gas caught fire outside the Shuttle, but in the end the crew made a graceful exit after closing out the flight deck instrumentation.

As a result of the cancellation, missions 41-D and 41-F were merged and 41-D took on more cargo. All was ready again on 29 August but launch was cancelled due to computer software problems before the flight crew got aboard. The next day, it was delayed by a further 6 minutes 50 seconds by intruding aircraft. Finally, at 07: 07 hrs local time, Discovery was airborne heading for its 28.45°orbit and a maximum altitude of 286 km (178 miles). Three large communications satellites were successfully dis­patched by the gleeful crew – a Shuttle first – and a 31 m (102 ft) solar sail was unfurled from the cargo bay. The longest structure erected in space, the Shuttle Power Extension Package prototype provided 250 watts of additional electrical power.

Walker, spending most of his time in the lower mid-deck, beavered away with CFES – which he had to repair – but its hormone biological material which was to be tested for its treatment for diabetes proved to be contaminated after the flight. Venting water from the fuel cell system had caused a large chunk of ice on the outside of Discovery, which the crew removed using the RMS thus making Hawley and Mullane’s unique contingency EVA unnecessary. The highly successful mission ended at T + 6 days 0 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds on Edwards runway 17, the shortest six – crew space flight.

Milestones

100th manned space flight 43rd US manned space flight 12th Shuttle flight 1st flight of Discovery 1st Shuttle pad abort

1st flight with a commercial payload specialist

Flight Crew

COATS, Michael Lloyd, 43, USN, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-D (1984)

BLAHA, John Elmer, 46, USAF, pilot SPRINGER, Robert Clyde, 46, USMC, mission specialist 1 BUCHLI, James Frederick, 43, USMC, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS 51-C (1985); STS 61-A (1985)

BAGIAN, James Philip, 37, civilian, mission specialist 3

Flight Log

With the Shuttle up and rolling again, it did not take NASA long to establish an ambitious launch schedule for 1989, which would see seven launches starting with STS-29 on 14 February. The mission was soon put back to 23 February and was delayed again to at least mid-March. As a precautionary measure, the high-pressure oxidiser turbopumps on all three SSMEs on Discovery – by now already on Pad 39B – were replaced because stress corrosion cracks had been discovered on an SSME used for STS-27.

There was concern that the delay might cancel the mission altogether because STS-30 Atlantis needed to be on the pad by 23 March to meet the first day of its planetary launch window for the Magellan spacecraft. The work was completed satisfactorily and a date of 11 March set. Then a master events computer failure caused another delay to 13 March. It did not look too hopeful on this day either, as Discovery and the launch pad were draped in ground fog and there were concerns about conditions on the Kennedy runway should there be a return to launch site abort.

The count proceeded and was held at T — 9 minutes for 1 hour 50 minutes before Discovery rose majestically into the bright sunlit skies at 09: 57hrs local time – accompanied by the first female launch commentary of a US manned launch by NASA’s Lisa Malone – into its 28.45° inclination orbit which would reach a maximum

altitude of 283 km (176 miles). For the first time, photographs were captured of the external tank, looking like a fat cigar before being stubbed out during re-entry. In space at last were the original crew of STS 61-H, which was to have flown in June 1986 carrying Britain’s would-be first man in space, Sq. Ldr. Nigel Wood, had it not been for the Challenger disaster. The only newcomer to the crew was James Bagian who replaced Anna Fisher from the original 61-H mission.

At T + 6 hours 13 minutes, the primary payload of the mission, TDRS-D, was deployed, while concerns were raised about pressure surges in the fuel cells of the orbiter. The rest of the mission went swimmingly, concentrating on an array of science experiments and photography using the large format IMAX camera. The weather was so smooth at Edwards Air Force Base that a proposed crosswind landing test could not be performed, so commander Mike Coats aimed for runway 22 and a braking test on the concrete. Mission time was T + 4 days 23 hours 38 minutes 52 seconds. Discovery was in great shape and STS-29 proved to be one of the smoothest missions ever.

Milestones

124th manned space flight 58th US manned space flight 28th Shuttle mission 8th flight of Discovery 4th TDRS deployment mission

Flight Crew

CREIGHTON, John Oliver, 48, USN, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS 51-G (1985); STS-36 (1990)

REIGHTLER Jr., Kenneth Stanley, 40, USN, pilot

GEMAR, Charles Donald “Sam”, 36, US Army, mission specialist 1,

2nd mission

Previous mission: STS-38 (1990)

BUCHLI, James Frederick, 46, USMC, mission specialist, 4th mission Previous missions: STS 51-C (1985); STS 61-A (1985); STS-29 (1989) BROWN, Mark Neil, 40, USAF, mission specialist, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-28 (1989)

Flight Log

There was only a fourteen-minute delay to the launch of STS-48, caused by a faulty communications link between KSC and MCC in Houston. The landing, however, was scheduled for KSC but was diverted to Edwards due to bad weather around the Cape.

The 6,577 kg UARS was deployed by the RMS on the third day of the flight for a planned 18-month primary mission that would make the most extensive study yet conducted of the upper level of Earth’s atmosphere (called the troposphere). Astro­nauts Gemar and Buchli had trained to open the satellite’s solar panels and release its antennas during a contingency EVA, should the automatic systems fail. In the event, this training was not put into practice as the deployment went according to plan. The initial lock-on to TDRS proved difficult, but a back-up system resolved the communication problems with the satellite. Full operations were planned from mid – October 1991, although some instruments began sending data as soon as they were deployed while the rest of the satellite’s payload was being checked out.

In addition to deploying UARS, the crew worked on proton crystal growth experiments; a zero-gravity dynamic experiment studying how fluids and structures react in weightlessness; research into creating polymer membranes to be used as filters for use in industrial refining processes; an experiment that researched the effects of space flight on rodents; and studies of various radiation levels inside the orbiter from gamma rays, cosmic rays and other radiation sources. They also assisted in calibrating USAF optical instruments in Hawaii, and a particle monitor in the payload bay that measured contaminants during launch that might affect the payload being carried, as well as continuing the programme of Earth observations and photography carried on almost all Shuttle missions. On FD 4, Discovery took evasive action to avoid a piece of Soviet space debris that was predicted to pass only 350 metres below the orbiter.

The UARS satellite had a design life of just three years but some ten years after its deployment, six of its ten instruments were still operating. From June 1992 through to 1999, the satellite experienced power and equipment failures but continued to gather data from the surviving instruments. On 20 May 2005, UARS surpassed 5,000 days in orbit with five instruments still working, but by 21 August, the spacecraft had suffered

a short circuit in Battery #2, signifying the end of useful operations. One of its three batteries had already been lost in June 1997. UARS was planned for decommissioning during 2006.

Milestones

144th manned space flight 73rd US manned space flight 43rd Shuttle mission 13th mission for Columbia

1st major flight element for NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth programme 1st time a Shuttle required evasive action to avoid space debris

Flight Crew

NAGEL, Steven Ray, 47, USAF, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS 51-G (1985), STS 61-A (1985); STS-37 (1991) HENRICKS, Terence Thomas “Tom”, 41, USAF, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-44 (1991)

ROSS, Jerry Lynn, 45, USAF, mission specialist 1, payload commander, 4th mission

Previous missions: STS 61-B (1985); STS-27 (1988); STS-37 (1991) PRECOURT, Charles Joseph, 37, USAF, mission specialist 2 HARRIS Jr., Bernard Anthony, 36, civilian, mission specialist 3 WALTER, Ulrich, 38, civilian, German payload specialist 1 SCHLEGEL, Hans William, 41, civilian, German payload specialist

Flight Log

Getting STS-55 off the ground proved to be one of the more frustrating tasks of the Shuttle programme. The launch was originally set for late February 1993 but slipped back after problems arose with the turbine blade-tip seal retainers in the high-pressure oxidiser turbo pumps of the SSMEs. The option chosen was to replace the turbo­pumps at the pad, pushing the launch back to 14 March. This new launch date slipped when a hydraulic flex hose burst during a Flight Readiness Test. All twelve lines were removed and three of them had to be replaced before they could all be reinstalled. The revised 21 March launch was delayed by 24 hours due to a one-day delay in the launch of a preceding Delta II mission. Then, at T — 3 seconds on 22 March, the launch was aborted again by orbiter computers, this time because the #3 engine had failed to ignite. The third pad abort in the programme (the others being STS 41-D in 1984 and STS 51-F in 1985) was later traced to contamination during manufacture that had caused overpressure and precluded full engine ignition. All three engines were

replaced with spare units. The next attempt, on 24 April, was scrubbed when one of three IMUs gave possibly faulty readings and a 48-hour delay was scheduled to allow the removal and replacement of the IMU. Finally, on 26 April, the launch proceeded without incident. Following the launch, Pad A was scheduled for a period of refurb­ishment and modification which would last until February 1994.

The second German Spacelab mission featured 88 experiments in materials and life sciences, technology applications, Earth observations, astronomy and atmo­spheric physics. The crew would work in two shifts. The Red Shift comprised Precourt, Harris and Schlegel, while Nagel, Ross, Henricks and Walter worked the Blue Shift. After all the dramas of getting the mission off the ground, the crew encountered further problems in orbit. An overheating orbiter refrigerator/freezer unit in the mid-deck necessitated the use of a back-up to store samples, while a leaking nitrogen link in the waste water systems had to be fixed by the crew. The mission also suffered from a loss of communications for about 90 minutes due to an errant command from Mission Control in Houston (MCC-H). Columbia flew in a gravity gradient mode for most of the flight, which meant that onboard consumables were used at a reduced level. The mission management team determined that there was sufficient electrical power available to extend the mission by a day, which also meant that at landing Columbia had logged sufficient duration to bring the cumulative total flight time across the fleet (Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour) to 365 days 23 hours 48 minutes – just over one year in space on 55 missions. The landing of STS-55 was originally set for KSC, but was moved to Edwards due to cloud cover over the Shuttle Landing Facility area at the Cape.

Most of the experiments were provided by the German Space Agency and ESA, with a number being supplied by Japan and three by NASA. The French Space Agency, CNES, was also involved in the mission. This was the final “national” Spacelab mission from Germany, due in part to NASA’s reluctance to reduce the costs of flying such a large payload. Germany (and many other nations) decided that in future they would fly their experiments as part of International Spacelab missions. Despite this, valuable experience and information was gathered from the mission that would have relevance to the Columbus module that was being designed by ESA for the US space station (Freedom) programme.

Milestones

160th manned space flight

85th US manned space flight

55th Shuttle mission

14th flight of Columbia

8th Spacelab Long Module mission

2nd dedicated German Spacelab mission

Accumulated flight time for all Shuttles exceeds 1 year

Flight Crew

GIBSON, Robert Lee, 48, USN, commander, 5th mission Previous missions: STS 41-B (1984); STS 61-C (1986); STS-27 (1988);

STS-47 (1992)

PRECOURT, Charles Joseph, 39, USAF, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-55 (1993)

BAKER, Ellen Louise, 42, civilian, mission specialist 1, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-34 (1989); STS-50 (1992)

HARBAUGH, Gregory Jordan, 39, civilian, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-39 (1991); STS-54 (1993)

DUNBAR, Bonnie Jean, 46, civilian, mission specialist 4, 4th mission Previous missions: STS 61-A (1985); STS-32 (1990); STS-50 (1992)

Mir EO-19 crew up only:

SOLOVYOV, Anatoly Yakovlevich, 47, Russian Air Force,

Russian cosmonaut 1, commander EO-19, 4th mission

Previous missions: Soyuz TM5 (1988); Soyuz TM9 (1990); Soyuz TM15 (1992) BUDARIN, Nikolai Mikhailovich, 42, civilian, Russian cosmonaut 2, flight engineer EO-19

Mir EO-18 crew down only:

DEZHUROV, Vladimir Nikolayevich, 32, Russian Air Force,

Russian cosmonaut 1, commander EO-18

STREKALOV, Gennady Mikhailovich, 54, civilian, Russian cosmonaut 2, flight engineer EO-18, 5th mission

Previous missions: Soyuz T3 (1980); Soyuz T8 (1983); Soyuz T10-1 pad abort (1983); Soyuz T11 (1984); Soyuz TM10 (1990)

THAGARD, Norman Earl, 51, civilian, NASA-1 cosmonaut researcher Mir-18, mission specialist 5, 5th mission

Previous missions: STS-7 (1983); STS 51-B (1985); STS-30 (1989); STS-42 (1992)

Flight Log

The launch of STS-71 was originally scheduled for late May, but was delayed due to the late launch of Spektr and the series of Mir EVAs in support of relocating the new module. Launch attempts on 23 and 24 June were scrubbed due to weather concerns. The docking with Mir occurred on 29 June, using the Earth radius vector approach (R-Bar) in which the orbiter approached Mir from “below”. The Orbiter Docking System and an Androgynous Peripheral Docking System acted as the connection

point between the Shuttle and the Kristall module. The same day, the EO-19 crew took over from the EO-18 crew as residents on the station.

Over the next five days (or 100 hours), a programme of joint biomedical inves­tigations and logistics transfer operations was conducted, the first such activity between US and Russian spacecraft and crews. In the Spacelab module, more than 15 biomedical and scientific investigations were conducted in seven different fields (cardiovascular and pulmonary functions; human metabolism; neuroscience; sanita­tion and radiation; hygiene; behavioural performance and biology; fundamental biology and microgravity research). Experiment samples from Mir were gathered and returned to Earth aboard Atlantis, including over 100 urine and saliva samples, 30 blood samples, 20 surface samples and 12 air samples. The returning EO-18 crew members also conducted a programme of exercise and prevention measures to help prepare them for the return to Earth after their three-month mission.

Transferred to Mir were 454 kg of water generated by the orbiter system, which would be used on the station for waste system flushing. Specially designed EVA tools were also transferred, as was a supply of oxygen and nitrogen from the Shuttle ECS to raise air pressure inside Mir and conserve the station’s own consumables. A broken Salyut 5-type computer was also returned to Earth aboard Atlantis. Undocking occurred on 3 July, shortly after the EO-19 crew had undocked their Soyuz TM and positioned the small spacecraft to photograph the departure of Atlantis. The Shuttle crew then recorded the re-docking of the Soyuz TM before departing for the return to Earth. The EO-18 crew lay supine in custom-made Russian seat liners to ease their readaptation to gravity due to returning on the Shuttle instead of a Soyuz Descent Module. The complement of eight crew members aboard Atlantis as it came home equalled the largest Shuttle crew in history, STS 61-A in October 1985. The runway was changed from No. 33 to No. 15 just twenty minutes before touchdown, due to concerns over clouds in the area obscuring landing aids.

Milestones

179th manned space flight 99th US manned space flight 69th Shuttle mission 14th flight by OV-104 Atlantis 1st Shuttle-Mir docking

1st space station crew exchange by US Shuttle

100th US human space launch from the Cape in Florida

11th Spacelab Long Module mission

1st and only Spacelab to be part of a Shuttle payload docked to a space station Largest spacecraft ever in orbit (225 tons)

1st on-orbit change of Shuttle crew

Precourt celebrated his 40th birthday in space (29 Jun)

Flight Crew

SOLOVYOV, Anatoly Yakovlevich, 47, Russian Air Force, commander,

4th mission

Previous missions: Soyuz TM5 (1988); Soyuz TM9 (1990); Soyuz TM15 (1992) BUDARIN, Nikolai Mikhailovich, 42, civilian, flight engineer

Flight Log

The Mir EO-19 crew arrived at the space station via the American Shuttle during the STS-71 mission. The cosmonauts had received basic training on ascent operations (and emergency escape procedures) at NASA for the ascent to orbit, but it was planned for them to return to Earth in Soyuz TM21, so there was no need for them to conduct extensive Shuttle systems training. The EO-19 crew and their back-ups (Onufriyenko and Usachev) each received on average 70 hours training on Shuttle launch, entry and orbital operations, crew and Shuttle systems, and procedures. The two EO-18 cosmonauts, on the other hand, who would only complete re-entry aboard the Shuttle, received about 28.5 hours each.

After completing the hand-over procedures from the EO-18 cosmonauts, the EO-19 crew transferred their Soyuz seat liners into the Soyuz DM and officially became the resident crew members of the station. On 2 July, the EO-19 cosmonauts undocked their Soyuz TM21 spacecraft from the Kvant module to dock at the forward port, freeing the rear port to receive further Progress re-supply craft. This event also allowed them to photograph the undocking of Atlantis from the station with the returning EO-18 crew. Then the astronauts on Atlantis photographed the re-docking of the Soyuz at the front port of the station before departing to begin the return to Earth.

Safely back on Mir, the two cosmonauts began their short residency, which again was mainly focused on maintenance and repair although they managed to complete

some materials-processing operations. Three EVAs were conducted. The first on 14 July (5 hours 34 minutes) was used to inspect the —Z port where Kristall was to be relocated on 17 July. They found nothing to prevent the relocation, and also used the EVA to unfurl the Spektr arrays using a NASA-provided tool. Solovyov and Budarin also inspected an antenna and a malfunctioning solar array drive motor on the Kvant 2 module. The next EVA on 19 July (3 hours 8 minutes) included the retrieval of a US-provided detector and preparations for installing a joint Belgian/ French/Russian infrared spectrometer. A failed cooling system in Solovyov’s Orlan suit curtailed activities, forcing the cosmonaut to remain near the Kvant 2 hatch and use umbilical cooling supplied from the module instead of the integral backpack. After suit repair work inside Mir, the third EVA on 21 July (5 hours 50 minutes) was used to complete the tasks scheduled for the cancelled second excursion. It was during this EVA that Solovyov became the record-holder for total career EVA time, at 41 hours 49 minutes, surpassing that of Krikalev set in 1992.

Milestones

1st Russian space station crew launched by US Shuttle 1st primary crew flying as passengers on ascent

Flight Crew

HENRICKS, Terence Thomas “Tom”, 43, USAF, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-44 (1991); STS-55 (1993)

KREGEL, Kevin Richard, 38, civilian, pilot

THOMAS, Donald Alan, 40, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-65 (1994)

CURRIE, Nancy Jane, 36, US Army, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-57 (1993)

WEBER, Mary Ellen, 32, civilian, mission specialist 3

Flight Log

STS-70 should have launched prior to STS-71. However, on 31 May, after northern flicker woodpeckers at Pad 39B had poked approximately 200 holes in the foam insulation of the ET, attempts to repair the damage at the pad were unsuccessful. The resulting rollback to the VAB for repairs forced the mission to be rescheduled after STS-71. The media coverage of the woodpecker activities (from the wildlife nature reserve around the Cape), prompted two JSC employees to design a comic STS-70 mission emblem, adding a smiling Woody Woodpecker cartoon character – a tongue – in-cheek joke that the flight crew enjoyed. They were also amused by the use of the Woody Woodpecker cartoon’s theme tune as a wake-up call on FD 2. The countdown to launch on 13 July proceeded relatively smoothly, with only a short, 55-second hold to verify range safety system signals from the destruct system on the ET. The lift-off marked the shortest time between the landing of one mission and the launch of the next (just 6 days) in the programme. However, post-flight inspection of the right-hand SRM nozzle revealed a gas path in internal joint number 3 that extended from the motor chamber up to, but not beyond, the primary O-ring. A similar gas path had been noted on STS-71 and had been revealed on other missions, but the incidents on STS-71 and STS-70 were the first to show a slight heat effect on the primary O-ring.

The problem would require investigation and repair on future SRB/SRMs scheduled for flight (see STS-69).

The launch of STS-70 included the first flight of a new Block ISSME (# 2036) that featured improvements to increase the reliability and safety margins of the engines. The first use of three Block I improved engines was scheduled for STS-73. Some six hours into the mission, the crew deployed the final TDRS satellite, which would act as an on-orbit operational spare. With the completion of the primary task, the crew spent the remainder of their mission working on a range of mid-deck experiments.

These focused on plant growth and development, the hormone system of insects, the performance of a bioreactor in microgravity for the growth of individual cells, and a range of experiments aimed at studying the effects of space flight on mammalian development. The crew also conducted commercial protein crystal growth experi­ments, research into space tissue loss, tests of hand-held space-based geolocation systems, the production of pharmaceuticals in weightlessness, examinations of the effects of ships on the marine environment, radiation monitoring and experiments to understand the chemistry and dynamics of thruster emissions, outgassing and other debris on the Shuttle’s exterior hardware and surfaces.

The mission was also to be run from the new upgraded Mission Control Room in Building 30 at the JSC facility near Houston, Texas. Following the deployment of TDRS, the controllers on the next shift operated from the new MCC (called the White Flight Control Room – FCR, pronounced “flicker”). The old room had been used since Gemini 4 in June 1965 and became famous as the Apollo mission control room during the lunar landing missions. It would be turned into a national monument and tourist attraction at JSC. Orbital operations continued in the new room, but landing operations were handled from the old room. Until early 1996, all Shuttle launch and landing phases would still be controlled from the old FCR, but would gradually be moved into the new room.

The first landing opportunity for STS-70, on 21 July at KSC, was waived off due to fog and low visibility, as was the first attempt on 22 July. Following the landing, Discovery was prepared for shipment to California for a period of refurbishment and modifications. It was due to return to duty in the summer of 1996, to prepare for the second Hubble service mission planned for early 1997 (STS-82).

Milestones

180th manned space flight

100th US manned space flight

70th Shuttle mission

21st flight of Discovery

7th and final TDRS deployment mission

1st use of new MCC in Houston, JSC

Quickest turnaround from landing (STS-71) to launch (STS-70) between missions – 6 days

Flight Crew

WETHERBEE, James Donald, 44, USN, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-32 (1990); STS-52 (1992); STS-63 (1995) BLOOMFIELD, Michael John, 38, USAF, pilot

TITOV, Vladimir Georgievich, 50, Russian Air Force, mission specialist 1, 4th mission

Previous missions: Soyuz T8 (1983); Soyuz T10 abort (1983); Soyuz TM4 (1987); STS-63 (1995)

PARAZYNSKI, Scott Edward, 36, civilian, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-66 (1994)

CHRETIEN, Jean-Loup Jacques Marie, 59, French Air Force,

mission specialist 3, 3rd mission

Previous missions: Soyuz T6 (1982); Soyuz TM7 (1988)

LAWRENCE, Wendy Barrien, 38, USN, mission specialist 4, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-67 (1995)

NASA 6 Mir crew member up only:

WOLF, David Alan, 41, civilian, mission specialist 5, Mir EO-24 cosmonaut researcher, NASA board engineer 6, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-58 (1993)

NASA 5 Mir crew member down only:

FOALE, Colin Michael, 40, civilian, mission specialist 5, Mir EO-23 cosmonaut researcher, NASA board engineer 5, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-45 (1992); STS-56 (1993); STS-63 (1995)

Flight Log

Both Scott Parazynski and Wendy Lawrence were originally in line for long flights on the Mir space station. Parazynski had been removed from long-duration training due to the fact that he was too tall to fit in the Soyuz contour seat if he needed to use one for emergency landing (he would have been launched to and from the Mir on the Shuttle under normal circumstances). Lawrence would have followed Foale on Mir, but was deemed too short to fit into an Orlan suit, a requirement introduced after the Progress collision in order to allow American astronauts to support EVA operations to repair the station should the need arise. Lawrence had never completed Orlan EVA training, as it was not part of her original programme to perform an EVA. However, she still remained part of the STS-86 Shuttle crew to visit Mir. In addition, by way of compensation for losing the duration flight she had trained so long for, she was also guaranteed a flight on the STS-89 mission that would exchange Wolf with the final US

astronaut, Andy Thomas. For some time, the three astronauts were known as Scott “Too Tall” Parazynski, Wendy “Too Short” Lawrence and Dave “Just Right” Wolf.

Regular reviews of Shuttle-Mir operations occurred prior to each docking mis­sion, but after a fire and a collision in the space of four months, an independent and internal safety assessment was completed before NASA Administrator Dan Goldin would authorise the flight and exchange of NASA crew members. His authorisation came only an hour before the launch of STS-86. The events at Mir had seriously affected Foale’s science programme, as most of his equipment had been left in the sealed-off Spektr module. But his contribution to the recovery of the station both during and immediately after the collision had earned him high praise from Russian space officials.

Atlantis docked to Mir for the seventh (and the orbiter’s final) time on 27 Sep­tember, with the exchange between Foale and Wolf accomplished the following day. During the six days of docked operations, the crew moved over four tons of material from SpaceHab/Atlantis to the space station, including over 770 kg of water, plus specimens and hardware for ISS risk mitigation experiments that would monitor the health and safety of the resident crew. A gyrodyne, batteries, three air pressurisation units, an attitude control computer and a range of other logistical items were also transferred to Mir. Coming the other way for the return to Earth were experiment samples and hardware and an old Elektron oxygen generator.

On 1 October, Parazynski (EV1) and Titov (EV2) completed a joint US/Russian EVA, a forerunner to those planned for ISS operations. During the EVA, they attached a 55-kg Solar Array Cap to the Docking Module for a future Russian EVA crew to seal off a suspected leak in Spektr’s hull. They also retrieved four Mir Environmental Effects Payloads and continued testing the SAFER units.

After undocking on 3 October, Atlantis completed a fly-around to conduct a visual inspection of the station. This included allowing air into the Spektr module to see if the Atlantis crew could detect seepage or debris particles that would help to locate the breach in the module’s hull. Particles were seen but they could not conclusively be deemed to have originated from Spektr. Two landing opportunities were waived on 5 October due to low clouds. This was the last flight of Atlantis before a planned maintenance down period, after which the vehicle would participate in the early construction flights of ISS.

Milestones

202nd manned space flight

117th US manned space flight

87th Shuttle mission

20th flight of Atlantis

7th Shuttle-Mir docking

38th US and 67th flight with EVA operations

9th SpaceHab mission (4th double module)

Flight Crew

KREGEL, Kevin Richard, 41, civilian, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-70 (1995); STS-78 (1996)

LINDSEY, Steven Wayne, 37, USAF, pilot CHAWLA, Kalpana, 34, civilian, mission specialist 1 SCOTT, Winston Elliott, 47, USN, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-72 (1996)

DOI, Takao, 43, civilian, mission specialist 3

KADENYUK, Leonid Konstantinovich, 46, Ukraine Air Force, payload specialist 1

Flight Log

Completing a sixth on-time launch for the year and ending the second year in which eight flights had been completed (the first being 1992), this was a flight of mixed fortunes. The USMP-4 payload performed well, with experiments focusing on materials science, combustion science and fundamental physics. There were other secondary and mid-deck experiments flown as well, including the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment, which featured ten planet biology experiments.

SPARTAN 201 was on its fourth mission and this time, its experiment pro­gramme was geared towards investigating the physical conditions and processes of the hot outer layers of the sun’s atmosphere – the Solar Corona. The SPARTAN was also to gather information on the solar wind. Originally, SPARTAN was to be deployed on FD 2, but a companion spacecraft, the Solar and Hemispheric Observa­tory (SOHO), had a temporary power problem and so the deployment was delayed by 24 hours. On FD 3, the RMS was used to lift the SPARTAN out of the bay, but the spacecraft failed to initiate a pirouette manoeuvre. This indicated a problem with the attitude control system, which would be required for finer pointing towards solar targets. During an attempted recapture, the RMS did not secure a firm grip and when

it was retracted, it imparted a small rotational spin on the satellite of about 2 degrees per second. The crew tried to match this rotation by firing the orbiter’s thrusters for a second grapple attempt, but this was called off by the flight controllers. Instead, a plan was devised for the EVA crew to capture the satellite by hand allowing it to be stowed back into the payload bay.

The original plan for the EVA was amended to include the SPAS capture, which was achieved on 24 November. Scott (EV1) and Doi (EV2) manually grappled the satellite, allowing Chawla to use the RMS to grab the satellite and gently lower it into the payload bay. A review of further operations with SPARTAN would be conducted by mission management prior to trying to release it a second time. After the satellite was secured, the EVA crew continued with their planned programme of activities, designed to support forthcoming ISS assembly missions. This included working with a crane which was installed on the port side of the payload bay. The EVA lasted 7 hours 3 minutes.

After completing most of their experiment programme, the crew received the news that a second EVA would be added to the flight, but the SPARTAN would not be released again. The risk of being unable to retrieve the unit again was too great and the orbiter’s fuel reserves were insufficient to support all contingencies. SPARTAN 201-04 therefore would not free-fly again on this mission, though it was later raised on the end of the RMS to test the video and laser sensors of the Automated Rendezvous and Capture System. The EVA crew also deployed the AEROCam Sprint, a prototype free-flying TV camera that could be utilised for remote inspections of the exterior of ISS and for visual inspections of hazardous locations which would be difficult for a suited EVA astronaut to safely reach. This second EVA, on 3 December, lasted 4 hours 59 minutes.

Milestones

203rd manned space flight

118th US manned space flight

88th Shuttle mission

24th flight of Columbia

39th US and 68th flight with EVA operations

1st Japanese to perform EVA (Doi)

4th flight of USMP payload

12th EDO mission

1st EVAs from Columbia

2001-035A

10 August 2001

Pad 39A, Kennedy Space Center, Florida 22 August 2001

Runway 15, Shuttle Landing Facility, KSC, Florida OV-103 Discovery/ET-100/SRB BI-109/SSME #1 2052; #2 2044; #3 2045

11 days 21 hrs 13 min 52 sec Discovery

ISS assembly flight 7A.1; MPLM-1 logistics mission; delivery of ISS-3 crew; return of ISS-2 crew

Flight Crew

HOROWITZ, Scott Jay, 44, USAF, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-75 (1996); STS-82 (1997); STS-101 (2000)

STURCKOW, Frederick Wilford, 41, USMC, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-88 (1998)

FORRESTER, Patrick Graham, 44, USAF, mission specialist 1 BARRY, Daniel Thomas, 47, civilian, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-72 (1996); STS-96 (1999)

ISS-3 crew up only:

CULBERTSON Jr., Frank Lee, 52, civilian, mission specialist 3, ISS-3

commander, 3rd mission

Previous missions: STS-38 (1990); STS-51 (1993)

TYURIN, Mikhail Vladislavovich, 41, civilian, Russian mission specialist 4, ISS-3 flight engineer

DEZHUROV, Vladimir Nikolayevich, 39, Russian Air Force, mission specialist 5, ISS-3 Soyuz commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM21 (1995)

ISS-2 crew down only:

VOSS, James Shelton, 51, US Army, ISS-2 flight engineer 1, mission specialist 3, 5th mission

Previous missions: STS-44 (1991); STS-53 (1992); STS-69 (1995); STS-101 (2000) HELMS, Susan Jane, 42, USAF, ISS-2 flight engineer 2, mission specialist 4, 5th mission

Previous missions: STS-54 (1993); STS-64 (1994); STS-78 (1996); STS-101 (2000) USACHEV, Yuri Vladimirovich, 42, civilian, Russian ISS-2 and Soyuz commander, mission specialist 5, 4th mission

Previous missions: Soyuz TM18 (1994); Soyuz TM23 (1996); STS-101 (2000)

Flight Log

Lightning and thick cloud, together with the risk of showers led to the original launch attempt on 9 August being scrubbed. The threat of bad weather the next day meant the launch window was opened five minutes earlier and the mission launched without incident. Docking with ISS took place on FD 3 and Discovery would remain linked to the station for 188 hours. The Leonardo MPLM was moved across to ISS on FD 4, where it would be unloaded over several days. The cargo included 3,000 kg of equipment, supplies and material. There were 12 racks of experiments and equipment in the module, six of which were Re-supply Stowage Racks that carried equipment, clothing, food and supplies. There were also four Storage Re-supply Platforms for logistics supplies and hardware, and two Express Racks that included smaller pay­loads for delivery to the station. Old hardware and used equipment was moved back to Leonardo for the trip back to Earth. On this flight, the ISS-2 crew’s belongings were part of the return cargo. In total, some 1,360 kg of material was brought back to Earth.

Two EVAs (by Barry – EV1 and Forrester – EV2) were completed (16 Aug for 6 hours 16 minutes and 18 August for 5 hours 29 minutes), during which the Shuttle EVA crew installed the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which included spare ammo­nia for use in the station’s coolant system if required. During the second EVA, the crew prepared for the delivery of the S0 Truss (planned for 2002) by installing heater cables and handrails on both sides of the Destiny lab. During FD 5, Discovery took over control of ISS while Zvezda received upgraded software from Russian flight control. The command of the station reverted to Zvezda when the new software had been loaded and checked.

Official hand-over between ISS-2 and ISS-3 crew members took place on FD 6 (17 Aug), which included a series of briefings and exchange of Soyuz seat liners in Soyuz TM32. Discovery undocked from ISS on 20 August and after the usual fly – around and separation manoeuvre, the Shuttle crew released a small science satellite, called Simplesat, by means of spring ejection from a GAS canister in the payload bay. The orbiter landed on the second of two Florida opportunities, with the first having been waived off due to bad weather.

Milestones

227th manned space flight

136th US manned space flight

106th Shuttle mission

30th flight of Discovery

50th US and 83rd flight with EVA operations

11th STS ISS mission

4th Discovery ISS mission

3rd MPLM flight

2nd MPLM 01 Leonardo flight

2nd Shuttle ISS resident crew exchange mission

Flight Crew

COLLINS, Eileen Marie, 48, USAF, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-63 (1995); STS-84 (1997); STS-93 (1999)

KELLY, James McNeal, 41, USAF, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-102 (2001)

NOGUCHI, Soichi, 40, civilian, Japanese mission specialist 1 ROBINSON, Stephen Kern, 49, civilian, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-85 (1997); STS-95 (1998)

THOMAS, Andrew Sydney Withiel, 53, civilian, mission specialist 3,

4th mission

Previous missions: STS-77 (1996); STS-89/91 (1996); STS-102 (2001) LAWRENCE, Wendy Barrien, 46, USN, mission specialist 4, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-67 (1995); STS-86 (1997); STS-91 (1998) CAMARDA, Charles Joseph, 53, civilian, mission specialist 5

Flight Log

It was almost 30 months between the loss of Columbia and the launch of Discovery. During this time, apart from the investigation into the probable cause of the accident and the steps taken to reduce the risk of it happening again, the whole Shuttle programme had been evaluated and a new long-term goal established. After clearing the Shuttle for flight operations, it would be used to complete the construction of ISS by 2010. After that, the fleet would be retired and replaced by a Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV). The CEV would be able to visit the station, but its primary role would be to return America to the Moon, hopefully by 2019 (the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11). American commitments to ISS would be met by 2016. Exactly what their in­volvement with the station would be after that is still to be decided.

The first launch attempt for STS-114 on 13 July was cancelled when an ET fuel sensor failed. Extensive troubleshooting delayed the mission, but the 26 July launch

occurred on time and was the most extensively documented launch into space in history. A myriad of ground-based and high-altitude aircraft-borne cameras, ground radar systems, sensors and lasers on the ascending Shuttle and a TV system on the ET, all recorded spectacular shots of the ascent from the pad, SRB separation and Orbiter/ ET separation. They also recorded the loss of some foam from the ET once more, which caused grave concern on the ground.

Discovery docked with ISS on 28 July. Prior to docking, Collins performed the first Rendezvous Pitch Manoeuvre some 183 metres from the station, at a rate of 0.75°/second, to allow the ISS-11 crew to photo-document the underside of the Discovery and its protective tiles. Analysis of the images revealed a little tile and foam damage, but the most serious problem appeared to be two protruding tile gap fillers, which might cause hot spots on entry. Several options were discussed and evaluated before the final solution was reached as the crew worked aboard the ISS. It was decided to allow the EVA crew to manually extract the fillers.

During the first EVA (30 Jul for 6 hours 50 minutes), Robinson (EV1) and Noguchi (EV2) worked with intentionally damaged tiles that had been brought up

to space for the purpose of evaluating new repair procedures and equipment. They also installed a base and cabling for a stowage platform and rerouted power cables to CMG-2, one of the four gyroscopes that orientate the station. The second EVA (1 Aug for 7 hours 14 minutes) saw the removal of the failed CMG-1 and its replacement with a new unit, restoring ISS to four functioning units. The added third EVA (3rd Aug for 6 hours 1 minute) saw Robinson ride the RMS over the side of Discovery to remove the two gap fillers with his gloved hand, which was much easier than first thought. This was the first time that an astronaut had ventured underneath the Shuttle during an EVA. The final EVA also included installation of an external stowage platform on ISS and the deployment of a materials experiment package for long-term exposure to the harsh conditions of space.

During their 9 days of docked activities, the crew transferred significant logistics to the station. MPLM Raffaello was relocated to the side of Destiny on 29 July and unloaded over several days. It carried 1,710kg of supplies and cargo, including the Human Research Facility 2 and the new CMG that was installed during EVA 2. Returned items included the 3.5 tons of material accumulated and stored since 2002, creating much welcomed volume inside the Zvezda when the waste had been relocated into Raffaello.

Discovery undocked from the station and performed a fly around, with both crews photographing each other’s spacecraft before the Shuttle crew prepared for the much anticipated return from orbit. To add to the tension both on Earth and in orbit, the landing was delayed by two days after four opportunities to land at Florida were cancelled by bad weather. Much to everyone’s relief, Discovery made a safe entry and landing at Edwards AFB. The mission had returned the fleet to space after the loss of Columbia, but there were still questions about the integrity of the foam fixtures. As a result, the next Shuttle mission would be delayed until the problems of foam coming off the ET were better understood.

Milestones

244th manned space flight

144th US manned space flight

114th Shuttle mission

31st flight of Discovery

57th US and 94th flight with EVA operations

17th Shuttle ISS mission

5th Discovery ISS mission

6th MPLM flight

3rd flight of MPLM-2 Raffaello

Manned space flights have thus far been launched from Pad 1 – “The Gagarin Pad” – at Site 5 or Pad 31 at Site 6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan (Russian launches); Pads 5, 14, 19 and 34 at Cape Canaveral and Pads A and B of Launch Complex 39 at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida (American launches); and most recently at Jiuquan in China (Chinese launches).

The USAF test pilot base at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) in California was the home of the X-15 rocket plane, which made “astroflights”, while Mojave Airport,

California was the home base for the Spaceship One “space tourism” test flights. Mojave may also be the home base for the Virgin Galactic Spaceship Two tourist vehicle. Vandenberg AFB, California was proposed as the Space Shuttle’s west coast base for military (polar orbit) missions, but the first mission was cancelled after the Challenger accident in 1986 and the Shuttle never flew from Vandenberg.