Category Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961-2006

EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 5 (ELC 5); EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 6 (ELC 6); two Shuttle-equivalent flights for contingency

ISS Assembly complete – Shuttle fleet retired Sep Soyuz TMA16 ? ISS-22 Russia No crew assigned

2011

Mar Soyuz TMA17 ? ISS-23 Russia No crew assigned

Apr

The following information was compiled with the help of Collect Space 7 Oct 2006, Robert Pearlman

Soyuz TMA-crewing 2007-2008

1961

Apr Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person fly into space and completes one orbit May Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space on a sub-orbital flight Aug Gherman Titov is launched on the first 24-hour mission, of 17 orbits

1962

Feb John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth, with 3 orbits Jul First X-15 flight to exceed 50 miles (Robert White)

Aug Andrian Nikolayev sets new endurance record (3 days 22 hours)

1963

Jun Valeri Bykovsky sets new endurance record (4 days 23 hours)

Valentina Tereshkova becomes first woman in space (2 days 22 hours)

Aug Highest X-15 flight (66.75 miles) – Pilot Joseph Walker

1964

Oct First multi-person space crew (3) – Voskhod 1; First civilians in space

1965

Mar Alexei Leonov becomes first person to walk in space

Mar First US multi-person crew (2) on Gemini 3

Jun Ed White becomes first American to walk in space

Aug Gemini 5 sets new endurance record (7 days 22 hours)

Cooper becomes first person to orbit Earth a second time Dec Gemini 7 set new endurance record (13 days 18 hours)

First space rendezvous – Gemini 6 with Gemini 7

1966

Mar First space docking – Gemini 8 with Agena target

Sep Gemini 11 attains highest altitude of Earth orbital manned flight (850 miles)

1967

Jan 27 Three Apollo 1 astronauts killed in pad fire

Apr Soyuz 1 pilot Vladimir Komarov killed during landing phase

Oct X-15 fastest flight (4520 mph – Mach 6.7) (Pete Knight)

Nov X-15 pilot Michael Adams is killed in crash of #3 aircraft after attaining

50.4 miles

1968

Aug Thirteenth and final X-15 “astro-flight”

Oct First three-man Apollo flight (Apollo 7)

Schirra becomes first person to make three orbital spaceflights Dec Apollo 8 becomes first lunar orbital mission

1969

Jan Soyuz 5/4 first manned docking and crew transfer (by EVA)

Mar Manned test of LM in Earth orbit (Apollo 9)

May Manned test of LM in lunar orbit (Apollo 10)

Jul First manned lunar landing – Apollo 11

Oct First triple manned spacecraft mission (Soyuz 6, 7, 8)

Nov Second manned lunar landing Apollo 12

1970

Apr Apollo 13 aborted lunar landing mission

Lovell becomes first to fly in space four times Jun Soyuz 9 cosmonauts set new endurance record (17 days 16 hrs)

1971

Feb Third manned lunar landing (Apollo 14)

Apr Launch of world’s first Space Station – Salyut (de-orbits Oct 1971)

Jun First space station (Salyut) crew. Killed during entry phase (Soyuz 11) Jul Fourth manned lunar landing (Apollo 15)

1972

Apr Fifth manned lunar landing (Apollo 16)

Dec Sixth and final (Apollo) manned lunar landing (Apollo 17)

1973

Apr Salyut 2 (Almaz) fails in orbit (de-orbits in 26 days)

May Launch of unmanned Skylab (re-enters Jul 1979)

First Skylab crew sets new endurance record of 28 days Jul Second Skylab crew increases endurance record to 59 day 11 hrs

Nov 3rd and final Skylab crew increases endurance record to 84 days 1 hr

1974

Jun Launch of Salyut (Almaz) 3 (de-orbits Jan 1975)

Jul First successful Soviet space station mission (Soyuz 14)

Dec Launch of Salyut 4 (de-orbits Feb 1977)

1975

Apr Soyuz 18 crew survive launch abort

Jul Soyuz 19 and Apollo dock in space – first international mission

1977

Sep Salyut 6 launched (de-orbits Jul 1982)

Dec First Salyut 6 resident crew set new endurance record of 96 days 10 hrs

1978

Jan First Soyuz exchange mission (Soyuz 27 for Soyuz 26)

Mar First Soviet Interkosmos mission (Czechoslovakian)

First non-Soviet, non-American person in space (Remek)

Jun Second Salyut 6 crew sets new endurance record of 139 days 14 hrs

1979

Feb Third Salyut 6 resident crew increases endurance record to 175 days

1980

Apr Fourth Salyut 6 resident crew increases endurance record to 184 days 20 hrs Jun First manned flight of Soyuz T variant

1981

Apr First Shuttle launch (Columbia STS-1) on 20th anniversary of Gagarin’s flight

John Young becomes first to make five space flights
Nov First return to space by manned spacecraft (Columbia STS-2)

1982

Apr Salyut 7 launched (de-orbits Feb 1991)

May First Salyut 7 resident crew sets new endurance record of 211 days 9 hrs

Nov First “operational” Shuttle mission, STS-5, is also the first four-person

launch

1983

Apr First flight of Challenger

Jun Sally Ride becomes first US woman in space during STS-7, the first five – person launch

Sep Soyuz T10-1 launch pad abort

Nov First Spacelab mission – STS-9; first six-person launch John Young flies record sixth mission

1984

Feb First use of MMU (STS 41-B) on untethered spacewalks Feb Third Salyut 7 resident crew sets new endurance record of 236 days 22 hrs

Jul Svetlana Savitskaya becomes the first woman to walk in space (Soyuz T12/

Salyut 7)

Aug First flight of Discovery on STS 41-D Oct First seven-person launch (STS 41-G)

Kathy Sullivan becomes first American woman to walk in space

1985

Jan First classified DoD Shuttle mission (STS 51-C)

Jul First Shuttle Abort-to-Orbit profile (STS 51-F)

Oct First flight of Atlantis (STS 51-J)

Oct First eight-person launch (STS 61-A)

1986

Jan Challenger and its crew of seven lost 73 seconds after launch (STS 51-L) Feb Mir core module launched unmanned

Mar First resident crew to Mir (Soyuz T15)

1987

Feb Second Mir resident crew sets new endurance record of 326 days 11 hrs First manned Soyuz TM variant

Dec First flight of over a year as third Mir resident crew sets endurance record of 365 days 22 hrs

1988

Sep Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission (STS-26)

1990

Apr Hubble Space Telescope deployment (STS-31)

1992

May First flight of Endeavour (STS-49)

1993

Dec First Hubble Service Mission (STS-61)

1994

Jan Valery Polyakov sets new endurance record (437 days 17 hrs) for one mission (lands Mar 1995)

Feb First Russian cosmonaut to fly on Shuttle (Krikalev STS-60)

1995

Feb First Shuttle-Mir rendezvous STS-63/Mir

Eileen Collins becomes first female Shuttle pilot Mar First American launched on Soyuz (Thagard – TM21)

Jul First Shuttle docking with Mir (STS-71 – Thagard down)

Nov Second Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-74)

1996

Mar Third Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-76 – Lucid up)

Sep Fourth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-79 – Lucid down, Blaha up)

Nov Longest Shuttle mission (17 days 15 hrs – STS-80)

Musgrave becomes only astronaut to fly all five orbiters

1997

Jan Fifth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-81 – Blaha down, Linenger up)

Feb Second Hubble service mission (STS-82)

May Sixth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-84 – Linenger down, Foale up)

Jun Collision between unmanned Progress vessel and Mir space station damages Spektr module

Sep Seventh Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-86 – Foale down, Wolf up)

1998

Jan Eighth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-89 – Wolf down, Thomas up)

Jun Ninth and final Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-91 – Thomas down)

Oct John Glenn returns to space aged 77, 36 years after his first space flight Nov First ISS element launched – Zarya FGB Dec First ISS Shuttle mission (STS-88)

1999

Jul Eileen Collins becomes first female US mission commander (STS-93)

Aug Mir vacated for first time in ten years Dec Third Hubble service mission (STS-103)

2000

Apr Last (28th) Mir resident crew (72 days)

Oct First ISS resident crew launched

2001

Mar Mir space station de-orbits after 15 years service

Apr Dennis Tito becomes first space flight participant, or “tourist”

2002

Mar Fourth Hubble service mission (STS-109)

Apr Jerry Ross becomes first person to fly seven missions in space Oct First manned flight of Soyuz TMA

2003

Feb Columbia and crew of seven lost during entry phase of mission STS-107

Apr ISS assumes two-person caretaker crews

Oct First Chinese manned spaceflight (Shenzhou 5)

Yang Liwei becomes first Chinese national in space

2004

Sep Spaceship One flies to 337,500 ft (102.87 km)

Oct Spaceship One flies to 367,442 ft (111.99 km) claiming $10 million X-Prize

2005

Jul Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission 1 – STS-114 Oct First Chinese two-man space flight – Shenzhou 6

2006

Jul Second Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission – STS-121 Aug ISS returns to three-person capability

Resumption of ISS construction – STS-115

The authors have referred to their own extensive archives in the compilation of this book. In addition, the following publications and resources were of great help in assembling the data:

The Press Kits, News releases and mission information from NASA, ESA, CSA, RKK-Energiya, JAXA (NASDA), CNES, and Novosti have been invaluable resources for many years

Magazines:

Flight International 1961-2006

Aviation Week and Space Technology 1961-2006

BIS Spaceflight 1961-2006

Soviet Weekly/Soviet News 1961-1990

Orbiter, Astro Info Service 1984-1992

Zenit, Astro Info Service, 1985-1991

ESA Bulletin 1975-2006

British Interplanetary Society Books:

History of Mir 1986-2000; Mir: The Final Year Supplement, Editor Rex Hall 2000/ 2001

The ISS Imagination to Reality Volume 1 Ed Rex Hall 2002 The ISS Imagination to Reality Volume 2, Ed Rex Hall 2005

NASA Reports:

NASA Astronautics and Aeronautics, various volumes, 1961-1995

Mir Hardware Heritage, David S. F. Portree NASA RP-1357, March 1995. Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology, David S. F. Portree and Robert C. Trevino, NASA Monograph in Aerospace history, #7 October 1997

NASA Histories:

1966 This New Ocean, a History of Project Mercury, SP-4201

1977 On the Shoulders of Titans: A history of Project Gemini, NASA SP-4203

1978 The Partnership: A history of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, NASA SP-4209

1979 Chariots for Apollo: A history of manned lunar spacecraft, NASA SP-4205 1983 Living and working in space: A history of Skylab NASA SP 4208

1977 Where No Man Has Gone Before: a history of Apollo lunar exploration missions, NASA SP-4214

2000 Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the Space Race 1945-1974, Asif Siddiqi, NASA SP-2000-4408

Other Books:

1980 Handbook of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Nicholas L. Johnson, AAS Vol 48, Science and Technology Series

1981 The History of Manned Spaceflight, David Baker

1987 Heroes in Space: From Gagarin to Challenger, Peter Bond

1988 Space Shuttle Log: The First 25 Flights, Gene Gurney and Jeff Forte

1988 The Soviet Manned Space Programme, Phillip Clark

1989 The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Space Technology, Chief Author Ken Gatland

1990 Almanac of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Dennis Newkirk

1992 At the Edge of Space: The X-15 Flight Program, Milton O. Thompson 1999 Who’s Who in space: The ISS Edition, Michael Cassutt 2001 Space Shuttle, History and Development of the National STS Program, Dennis Jenkins

Springer-Praxis Space Science Series (which include extensive references and bibliographies for further reading)

1999 Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions, David M. Harland

2000 Disasters and Accidents in Manned Spaceflight, David J. Shayler

2000 The Challenges of Human Space Exploration, Marsha Freeman

2001 Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier, Brian Harvey

2001 The Rocket Men, Vostok & Voskhod, the First Soviet Manned Spaceflights, Rex Hall and David J. Shayler 2001 Skylab:; America’s Space Station, David J. Shayler 2001 Gemini: Steps to the Moon, David J. Shayler

2001 Project Mercury: NASA’s First Manned Space Programme, John Catchpole

2002 The Continuing Story of the International Space Station, Peter Bond

Creating the International Space Station, David M. Harland and John E. Catchpole

Apollo: Lost and Forgotten Missions, David J. Shayler

Soyuz, a Universal Spacecraft, Rex Hall and David J. Shayler

China’s Space Programme: From Concept to Manned Spaceflight, Brian

Harvey

Walking in Space, David J. Shayler

The Story of the Space Shuttle, David M Harland

The Story of Space Station Mir, David M. Harland

Women in Space: Following Valentina, David J Shayler and Ian Moule

Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, Ben Evans.

Russia’s Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center, Rex Hall, David J. Shayler and Bert Vis

Apollo: The Definitive Source Book, Richard W. Orloff and David M. Harland

NASA Scientist Astronauts, Colin Burgess and David J. Shayler

The Russian ICBM R7-based Vostok booster with an upper stage was used to launch Yuri Gagarin on the first manned space flight on 12 April 1961. Five more missions followed until an “up-rated” Voskhod craft was launched using the Voskhod rocket, another derivative of the R7. A series of Soyuz boosters, also based on the R7 first stage, have been used to launch crewed missions since 1967 and the launcher will continue for many more years to send Soyuz International Space Station crew ferry and emergency return vehicles aloft.

The basic R7 launch vehicle had its origins in 1947, with the idea of grouping (clustering) rocket stages together instead of stacking them on top of each other (as with Saturn V).The final configuration from studies became Izdelie 8K71 (Product 8K71). Originally developed as an ICBM, it featured a central sustainer engine (Blok A) to which four strap-on boosters were attached (Blok B, V, G and D) forming stage 1. The central engine was the RD-108, providing 75 tons of thrust at lift off and burning for 304 seconds, while the four RD-107 boosters delivered 83 tons of thrust and burned for 122 seconds, separating at burn-out to allow the central sustainer to continue the

ascent. Both engines used LOX/kerosene and remained the core propulsion vehicle for all Soviet and Russian manned launches and a significant number of unmanned ones. Depending on the payload, additional upper stages were added to propel the payload into orbit. The central core of the R7 stands 26m (85 ft) with a diameter of 2.95 m (9.5 ft) tapering to 2.15 m (7 ft) to accommodate the four strap-on stages. Each of the boosters was 19 m (62 ft) long.

The three-man Apollo would be launched to the Moon using a Saturn V mega­booster, with two of the crew landing on the surface of the Moon. The trip utilised the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) method, in which an Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM) mother ship and a Lunar Module (LM) would fly to the Moon together. Initially, Apollo Command and Service Modules, termed Block I, were to be tested in Earth orbit for up to 14 days, before sending improved spacecraft (Block II) into deep space or around the Moon on solo test flights prior to man-rating the LM in a series of flight tests. Following the initial lunar landing, a series of exploration missions (up to nine) were planned to explore the local vicinity, using flying and roving vehicles to assist the astronauts who would spend four or five days on the Moon and about a week in orbit. A follow-on programme called Apollo Applications (Block III) would see expansion of the lunar landing programme to missions of up to two weeks on the surface, supported by a small S-IVB space station and leading to the creation of a lunar research base in the 1980s.

The loss of the Apollo 1 crew in 1967 cancelled all Block I Apollo missions. The first manned flight (Apollo 7) was a CSM-only mission, as was Apollo 8, the first manned lunar orbiting mission. Apollo 9 tested the CSM/LM combination in Earth orbit, and Apollo 10 repeated the feat in lunar orbit. This led to the Apollo 11 lunar landing in July 1969. By then, ten landings were manifested and others planned. However, a variety of social, political and hardware issues, notwithstanding the Apollo 13 aborted lunar mission that almost cost the lives of the crew, terminated the Apollo lunar landing programme with the sixth landing – Apollo 17.

Apollo 7, weighing 14,694 kg (32,400 lb) in orbit, comprised two of the three Apollo Moon landing flight modules, namely the Command and Service Modules. The Command Module was 3.48m (11.4ft) high and 3.91m (12.8ft) in diameter. It weighed 5,556 kg (12,251 lb) and comprised heat shields, 12 reaction control system thrusters, a triple main parachute landing system, computers, waste management, hot water and food. The atmosphere of the 5.95 m2 (64 ft2) cabin was gradually changed from a 60/40 oxygen/nitrogen mix at 15 psi to a 5 psi pure oxygen atmosphere after lift­off. The Service Module, including the UDMH-nitric oxide, 9,752 kg (21,503 lb) thrust Service Propulsion System with its 2.8 m (9 ft) long nozzle, was 7.49 m (24.5 ft) long and the same diameter as the Command Module. It contained the fuel tanks for the SPS, fuel cells for the electrical and water generation system, pumps, radiators and a series of RCS thrusters. Apollo 7 Command Module 101 was a lighter weight CM/SM combination than on later flights. Apollo 8, CM103, weighed 28,901kg (63,727 lb)

and included, for the first time, the high-gain steerable S-band antenna of four 78 cm (31 in) diameter parabolic dishes mounted on a folding boom at the aft end of the Service Module.

The combined Apollo 9 CM104, LM3 modules weighed 36,559kg (80,613lb) in orbit. The two-stage aluminium-aluminium alloy LM, which was not designed to

withstand re-entry, was 6.98 m (23 ft) tall. The descent stage was an octagonal struc­ture, 3.22 m (10.5 ft) high, with a maximum diameter of 4.29m (14 ft). With four landing legs deployed, the LM measured 9.44 m (31 ft) tall. The landing struts were made of crushable aluminium honeycomb and each 0.9 m (3 ft) diameter footpad had surface sensing probes to signal descent engine shutdown. One of the legs had a ladder, extending from the porch of the ascent stage crew hatch. The descent engine was surrounded by equipment bays, holding fuel and gas tanks, navigation and guidance systems, and science equipment used on lunar missions. The descent stage was covered in Mylar-aluminium alloy for thermal and meteoroid protection. The ascent stage was 3.75 m (12 ft) high, with a maximum diameter of 4.44 m (14.5 ft). It contained a 7.16 m3 (253ft3) pressurised crew compartment, measuring 2.33m (7.5ft) by 1.06m (3.5ft). The ascent stage also included an ascent engine, docking port and tunnel, guidance and navigation, and life support systems. The total weight of the first manned Lunar Module was 4,450kg (9,812lb). Apollo 11 (CM107, LM5) weighed 43,869.6kg (96,732 lb). Apollo 15 (CM112, LM8) weighed 46,785.35 kg (103,162 lb). This was a new J-series mission which incorporated enhanced Command, Service and Lunar Modules.

Flight Crew

McDIVITT, James Alton, 35, USAF, command pilot WHITE II, Edward Higgins, 34, USAF, pilot

Flight Log

When the flight plan for Gemini 4 was initially worked out, station-keeping with the Titan second stage and spacewalking were not on the agenda. Indeed, doctors were doubtful that the mission should last four days and recommended a two-day mission. The astronauts supported an EVA, but initially this was only a stand-up EVA in the hatch. After Leonov’s exploits, they got what they wanted, but with just nine days to spare – for confirmation of the planned spacewalk was only made on 25 May 1965. Station-keeping with the second stage of the booster was the idea of Gus Grissom and Gordon Cooper, who had light-heartedly suggested such a manoeuvre during space – to-ground communications during Gemini 3.

A misbehaving gantry tower got stuck and spoiled the launch day slightly, delaying the ascent of the rookie astronauts James McDivitt and Edward White by 1 hour 16 minutes. The launch was shown live on television in Britain and the rest of Europe via the Early Bird communications satellite, at 11: 15 hrs Cape time and 10: 15 hrs Houston time, where the new Manned Space Flight Center and flight control room was situated, ready to take command of its first mission. Gemini 4 entered a 32° inclination orbit with a peak apogee of 296 km (184 miles). McDivitt’s station-keeping with the second stage of the Titan was not altogether a success, with 42 per cent of the Orbital Attitude Manoeuvring System (OAMS) propellant being consumed. The experiment was called off and the EVA delayed for an extra orbit.

On orbit No. 3, Edward White exited Gemini 4 for a 21-minute adventure that featured some of the finest space photography, courtesy of McDivitt. White’s 7.62 m (25 ft) long tether provided oxygen and he had a ventilator control module on his chest to provide nine minutes worth of emergency oxygen, if required. The excited and

enthusiastic White controlled his movements using an oxygen-powered hand-held manoeuvring unit, and had to be ordered back into the capsule because night was approaching. The hatch was closed 36 minutes after it had been opened, but only after some strenuous pulling by the two crewmen.

The rest of the flight, lasting a US record 62 orbits, passed quietly as the crew performed 11 scientific experiments and took a fine photo of Cape Kennedy from the cramped confines of the spacecraft. The onboard computer failed towards the end of the flight and McDivitt performed a two-phase manual re-entry, first lowering the orbit to 76 by 158 km (47 by 98 miles) before firing the retros to initiate an 8-G re­entry. Splashdown at T + 4 days 1 hour 56 minutes 12 seconds was 81 km (50 miles) off target, about 625 km (388 miles) east of Cape Kennedy. The jubilant crew, having almost caught up with the Russians, were recovered by a helicopter from USS Wasp.

Milestones

16th manned space flight

8th US manned space flight

2nd Gemini manned flight

1st US and second flight with EVA operations

1st US manned launch seen live in Europe

On 29 June 1965, USAF pilot Joseph Engle, 32, flew the sixth X-15 astro-flight in the number 3 aircraft to an altitude of 85 km. Six weeks later, on 10 August 1965, he was again at the controls of X-15-3 on the seventh astro-flight, this time to 83 km.

Flight Crew

COOPER, Leroy Gordon, 38, USAF, command pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: Mercury-Atlas 9 (1963)

CONRAD, Charles “Pete” Jr., 35, USN, pilot

Flight Log

Gemini 5 was America’s bid to exceed the Soviet five-day space endurance record. Indeed, such was their determination that the first official astronauts’ flight badge featured an image of a covered wagon of the “Old West’’ whose slogan was “Cali­fornia or bust’’. The Gemini 5 crew emblem carried the motto “Eight Days or Bust’’. When this was proposed, the crew were told to cover the slogan, in case they should “bust’’ before the eight days were reached. Cooper’s connection with the Mercury programme was perpetuated when, after a countdown rehearsal on Pad 19, the crew had to be rescued by the “cherry picker’’ crane used at the Mercury-Redstone Pad 5, after the main gantry failed to erect itself.

The launch was delayed on 19 August by threatening storms and was recycled by 48 hours. At 09: 00hrs local time, Gemini 5 thundered into the skies right on time, entering a record US altitude of 303 km (188 miles) in its 32.6° inclination orbit. A 5m (16 ft) segment of the Titan first stage was recovered in the Atlantic, marking another US space first. The major plan for Gemini 5 was to eject a 34.4 kg (76 lb) radar evaluation pod from the rear adapter section and for the astronauts to back away 84 km (52 miles), then rendezvous with it. These plans were almost immediately thwarted when the fuel cell oxygen pressure decreased from 800 psi to 120 psi. Space­craft power had to be conserved drastically and plans were made to bring the crew home after just three orbits.

The pressure finally dropped to 60 psi but mission planners decided to keep the crew aloft for a lazy, boring drifting flight. This seemed interminable to the crew, who in their months of training had covered almost every topic imaginable and didn’t therefore talk to each other – or the ground – much. Surprisingly, mission control

planned a five-orbit-change “phantom rendezvous” as a practice, which took them even higher to 349 km (217 miles) in the 32.6° orbit. The crew were able to perform 17 science experiments, one of which was to evaluate their ability to see things on the ground, and although they did not see a special “chessboard” target, they did see a rocket launched from Vandenberg AFB.

They also saw the wake of their prime recovery ship USS Lake Champlain on which they would later beam proudly after a flight of 7 days 22 hours 55 minutes 14 seconds, shortened by one orbit because of fears of a hurricane in the splashdown zone. Gemini 5 missed its target by 170 km (106 miles), but it did beat the Soviet endurance record. More importantly, the Americans had flown a mission lasting as long as it would take to fly to the Moon and back. The crew reportedly ripped off the patch covering their emblem slogan, having surpassed their objective.

Milestones

17th manned space flight 9th US manned space flight

3rd Gemini manned flight 1st US on-time lift-off 1st flight to be curtailed

1st manned spacecraft to be powered by fuel cells 1st flight to feature a personal crew emblem

On 28 September 1965, NASA civilian test pilot John McKay, 42, flew the X-15 number 3 aircraft on the eighth astro-flight, to 90 km. The next astro-flight occurred on 14 October 1965, when USAF pilot Joe Engle, 33, flew the X-15 number 1 aircraft on its first such flight. The programme’s ninth astro-flight attained an altitude of almost 81 km.

Flight Crew

LOUSMA, Jack Robert, 46, USMC, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Skylab 3 (1973)

FULLERTON, Charles Gordon “Gordo”, 45, USAF, pilot

Flight Log

When Columbia returned to the Kennedy Space Center after STS-2, it was scheduled to be launched again on 22 March 1982. It was launched into murky skies, watched by one of the largest crowds since the moonshots, at 11: OOhrs local time. The first two minutes on the SRBs were enough for Lousma to describe the experience as a real barnburner, during which the vibrations caused the loss of 37 tiles from the nose and rear. His attention was diverted by an overheating APU which had to be shut down and when he got into his 38° inclination orbit, he became sick, repeating his experience of Skylab 3.

Lousma and his balding rookie pilot Gordon Fullerton started work on a hectic schedule of test flying and science. The RMS was to be tested heavily, moving two payloads around but not actually deploying them. The failure of TV cameras on the RMS, however, meant the cancellation of testing with the heaviest payload, although some operations were permitted with the Plasma Diagnosis Package. Other niggling failures, including the much-publicised toilet, were rather over-emphasised in the media, giving STS-3 a reputation it did not necessarily deserve.

Columbia was given long hot and cold soaks, pointing in the same direction for up to 80 hours, exposing it to temperatures of between — 66°C and +93°C. One of these cold soaks froze a fitment on one of the payload bay doors which refused to close properly. The mission, which reached a maximum altitude of 204 km (127 miles), was to last seven days and to end at White Sands for a change, because the runway at Edwards Air Force Base was waterlogged. Just 4O minutes before retro-fire, Columbia was waived off by high winds and given a day’s extension. When she finally came home

to the Northrup Strip’s runway at T + 8 days 0 hours 4 minutes 45 seconds, Lousma caused a scare by looking as though he was trying to take off again, at a record Shuttle landing speed of 404 kph (251 mph), when he over-corrected what he thought was excessive nose pitch down rate.

Milestones

83rd manned space flight 34th US manned space flight 3rd Shuttle flight 3rd flight of Columbia

Flight Crew

BEREZOVOY, Anatoly Nikolayevich, 40, Soviet Air Force, commander LEBEDEV, Valentin Vitalyevich, 40, civilian, flight engineer, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz 13 (1973)

Flight Log

With Salyut 6 and its Heavy Cosmos module orbiting somewhat uselessly, on 19 April 1982 the Soviets launched Salyut 7 (DOS 5-2/1982-033A), similar to Salyut 6 although its interior was fitted with an eye to decor. It was equipped with the Salyut 6-type MKF and Kate telescopes and a new large X-ray telescope for astronomy. Improved medical and physical exercise machines were incorporated, and on the outside the space station had extra handholds to improve EVA productivity. The three solar panels, too, were fitted with an attachment that could hold new, secondary sets of panels. The primary docking port was equipped to accommodate the Heavy Cosmos class modules comfortably and safely, and there were also new portholes.

The first crew to inhabit Salyut 7 was launched at 15: 58 hrs local time on 13 May. It comprised rookie commander Anatoly Berezovoy and the experienced flight en­gineer Valentin Lebedev, a nit-picking duo who were soon to build up such a bad relationship that they only spoke to each other when necessary during the first 200-day long mission in history, which, no doubt fortunately for them, included the visit of a French cosmonaut and the first lady in space since Valentina Tereshkova. Soon after boarding, Berezovoy and Lebedev hand-deployed a small Iskra communications satellite from an airlock, the first such deployment by the Soviets and the first from a space station. Progress 13 then arrived on 25 May, to stock up the station for the long-duration medical and science mission.

The cosmonauts operated cameras, the new telescope, a Kristall materials proces­sing furnace, a star sensor and the Oasis plant growing cabinet. The first visit occurred on 25 June, when French cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chretien and two Soviets came aboard in Soyuz T6 for a short stay. Another Progress, No.14, arrived on 12 July

bearing more cargo, water and fuel. The first Salyut 7 spacewalk was made on 30 July, with the cosmonauts spending 2 hours 33 minutes outside retrieving samples that had been exposed to space and replacing some science equipment. Lebedev was the prime EVA crewman, with his commander supporting activities with a television camera to provide some live pictures for the folks at home. The flight engineer also conducted some space assembly tests under the code name Pamyat, in which joints between girders were made and assessed.

By 20 August, this altogether highly successful mission was receiving Svetlana Savitskaya and two male colleagues from Soyuz T7, and afterwards two more Progress tankers, 15 and 16, came to roost. The cosmonauts, who reached a maximum altitude of 374 km (232 miles) during the 51.6° mission, had even launched another Iskra communications satellite. A manned crew changeover was expected later in the year but never came. Apparently it was decided to bring Berezovoy and Lebedev home earlier than anticipated, before the New Year rather than after.

They had a rough return, coming back at T + 211 days 9 hours 4 minutes 32 seconds aboard the fresh Soyuz T7, which landed hard, turned over and rolled down a slope. Lebedev ended up on top of his commander. The weather conditions were so awful – thick fog, heavy snow and temperatures of — 18°C – that helicopters could not reach them for a day. The pale, tired and drawn duo had to wait 20 minutes for a ground team to reach them and ended up spending the night in the back of a truck! When the helicopter did arrive, it crash-landed and the second vehicle had to be talked down by the commander of the first.

The cosmonauts had lost several pounds in weight, their red blood counts were reduced, and their pulse rates and blood pressure were high. Indeed, Berezovoy and Lebedev were reported to be still suffering from a space hangover by mid-January. On 2 March 1983, the Soviets launched another Heavy Cosmos module, Cosmos 1443. This was similar to the Cosmos 1267 module attached to Salyut 6, with a re-entry capsule at the front. Cosmos 1443 docked with Salyut 7 on 10 March, in preparation for a new manned occupation.

Milestones

84th manned space flight

50th Soviet manned space flight

43rd Soyuz manned space flight

4th Soyuz T manned mission

1st “operational” Soyuz T flight

1st manned space flight over 200 days

New duration record – 211 days 9 hours

6th Soviet and 21st flight with EVA operations

Flight Crew

DZHANIBEKOV, Vladimir Aleksandrovich, 40, Soviet Air Force, commander, 3rd mission

Previous missions: Soyuz 27 (1978); Soyuz 39 (1981) IVANCHENKOV, Aleksandr Sergeyevich, 41, civilian, flight engineer, 2nd mission

Previous mission: Soyuz 29 (1978)

CHRETIEN, Jean-Loup, 44, French Air Force, cosmonaut researcher

Flight Log

The highlight to France’s long-term cooperation with the Soviet Union in space was the decision in 1980 to fly a national cosmonaut. However, the cooperation between the chosen man, Jean-Loup Chretien and the chosen commander, Yuri Malyshev, in 1981, was not very smooth, leading to Malyshev’s replacement by Vladimir Dzhanibekov, with flight engineer Aleksandr Ivanchenkov making up the numbers. The highly qualified Chretien had been forbidden by Malyshev to touch anything during simulations and was so frustrated that he took a pillow along with him for one simulation at Star City and went to sleep during the session, much to Malyshev’s exasperation.

Relations improved with a new commander in the seat, and at 22: 29 hrs local time on 24 June, Soyuz T6 ascended, watched by French officials from a stand some 1,800 m (5,905 ft) away. Before the mission the prime crew and back-up crews had drawn lots to decide which emergency situations they would cope with during final simulator training. Chretien and his colleagues came out with automatic docking failure, which was repeated in space when the spacecraft’s computer failed, necessitat­ing a manual docking by Dzhanibekov. Once the Soyuz trio had joined Berezovoy and Lebedev, the experiments began.

The Soviets thought that working with the French was more like the real thing. The experiments were more technically sophisticated and useful compared with

The Third Decade: 1981-1990

some of those carried on earlier Interkosmos missions. These included the French Echograph heart monitor, which was left on Salyut 7 after Chretien’s departure. During his stay aboard Salyut, during which he reached 360 km (224 miles) in the 51.6° orbit, and with the US Space Shuttle Columbia also in orbit, seven men were in space for the first time since 1969.

Soyuz T6’s successful mission ended in fine weather near Arkalyk at T + 7 days 21 hours 50 minutes 52 seconds, with Chretien highly impressed with the dynamics of re-entry, rather than his launch. Later, he was to criticise the Soviet planners for cramming too much into the work schedule and to remark that throughout the mission he never fully acclimatised to weightlessness.

Milestones

24 June 1982

85th manned space flight

51st Soviet manned space flight

44th Soyuz manned space flight

5th Soyuz T manned space flight

1st Soyuz international mission

1st manned space flight by a Frenchman

1st manned space flight by a West European

Flight Crew

BRANDENSTEIN, Daniel Charles, 42, USN, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-8 (1983)

CREIGHTON, John Oliver, 42, USN, pilot

FABIAN, John McCreary, 43, USAF, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-7 (1983)

NAGEL, Steven Ray, 38, USAF, mission specialist 2

LUCID, Shannon Wells, 42, civilian, mission specialist 3

BAUDRY, Patrick, 39, French Air Force, payload specialist 1

AL-SAUD, Prince Sultan Salman Abdul Aziz, 28, civilian, payload specialist 2

Flight Log

The smoothest Space Shuttle to date, STS 51-G, with the orbiter Discovery in tow, made a majestic, on-time lift-off at 07: 33 hrs local time from Pad 39A, carrying a cargo of three large communications satellites and a crew of seven which for the first time included passengers (or, more correctly, payload specialists) from two other countries, France (CNES) and Saudi Arabia. Three days later, the Mexican satellite, Morelos, Saudia Arabia’s Arabsat, and the USA’s Telstar were safely deployed en route to geostationary orbit, with the aid of PAM-D stages.

Another satellite payload, called SPARTAN 1, was deployed for an autonomous flight to conduct X-ray observations of the Milky Way, before it was retrieved by the RMS. 51-G also conducted the first manned Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or “Star Wars’’)-related tests, attempting, eventually successfully, to reflect a laser beam directed at the Shuttle from Hawaii back to Earth via a small mirror mounted on the orbiter’s mid-deck side hatch window. French crew member Baudry completed a programme of biomedical experiments similar to those flown by his colleague Jean – Loup Chretien aboard Salyut 7 the previous year. Baudry had been Chretien’s back­up on that mission before completing an abbreviated Shuttle payload specialist

training programme in America. The experiments included studies in physiology, biology, materials processing, and astronomy. Al-Saud took photographs of his homeland, participated in several experiments (include assisting Baudry in his pro­gramme) and continued his religious commitments, fulfilling his Muslim customs as well as he could. He admitted that he could not totally “bend down” while floating, due to the tendency to cause space sickness; and facing Mecca created its own problems when he was orbiting Earth every 90 minutes.

Discovery came home to Edwards Air Force Base’s runway 23, making the shortest rollout so far, of 2,265 m (7,431 ft), only for its main landing gear to sink partially in the wet lake bed. It had to be rather ignominiously righted using a plank of wood. Flight time was T + 7 days 1 hour 38 minutes 52 seconds. Orbital inclination was 28.45° and maximum altitude was 334 km (208 miles).

Milestones

107th manned space flight

49th US manned space flight

18th Shuttle flight

5th flight of Discovery

1st flight by crew from three nations

1st flight by a Saudi Arabian

1st royalty in space (Al-Saud)

1st nation (France) to make space flights with both the USA and Russia

Flight Crew

SHRIVER, Loren James, 46, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-51C (1985)

BOLDEN Jr., Charles Frank, 44, USMC, pilot, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 61-C (1986)

McCANDLESS II, Bruce, 53, USN, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-B (1984)

HAWLEY, Steven Alan, 39, mission specialist 2, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS 41-D (1984); STS 61-C (1986)

SULLIVAN, Kathryn Dwyer, 39, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-G (1984)

Flight Log

The launch of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) deployment mission was originally set for 18 August, but was moved up to 12 April, then 10 April, following the Flight Readiness Review. This was the first time a Shuttle launch had been advanced following the FRR and not put back. However, the 10 April attempt was scrubbed at T — 4 minutes due to a faulty valve in APU # 1. The battery was replaced and the payload batteries on Hubble were recharged. On 24 April, the count was briefly halted at T — 31 seconds when a fuel valve line failed to shut. This was soon traced to a software failure and was overridden by engineers, allowing the count to continue.

Following a nominal ascent, most of the rest of FD 1 was spent preparing for the deployment of the telescope, which included powering up the RMS 2 hours 54 minutes into the flight. The cabin pressure was lowered in order to reduce the time the EVA crew of McCandless and Sullivan would need to pre-breathe pure oxygen should a contingency EVA be required. About 4.5 hours into the mission the umbilical power connection to the telescope was activated. The next day, the two spacewalkers got themselves partially dressed in their coolant garments, to save time should they need

to exit the airlock in support of HST deployment. Steve Hawley lifted the telescope out of the payload bay using the RMS. Once the end effector had grasped the starboard grapple fixture of the telescope, the five latches that restrained Hubble in the bay were released.

With the telescope out of the payload bay, its solar arrays were deployed. There was some concern early in the process when they became stuck, and at one point, it looked as though the EVA crew would have to go out and assist in the unfurling of the arrays. Eventually, by disengaging the tension warning system, the arrays unfurled to their full length. Nine hours after lifting the telescope out of the bay, Hawley released it from the grip of the RMS. Discovery then completed two separation burns to move away from the telescope. Until the RMS was stowed, the EVA crew remained in the airlock in case they were required to manually retract the arm for entry and landing.

Following the release of the telescope, the crew focused on their programme of secondary and mid-deck experiments, which included monitoring particles in the payload bay, a protein crystal growth experiment, radiation-monitoring equipment, polymer membrane processing and a student experiment to determine the effects of microgravity on electrical arcs. From their 600 km altitude vantage point, the crew also recorded spectacular images of the Earth. This was the highest apogee in the programme to date, and only Gemini 10 and 11 in 1966 and the nine Apollo lunar missions had ever taken astronauts higher. The IMAX camera was flown to record mission events from outside the crew compartment and a hand-held IMAX captured images from inside the flight and mid-deck. Sequences from STS-31 footage were later used in the IMAX movie presentation The Blue Planet in IMAX theatres. On FD 4, HST controllers managed to open the aperture door of the telescope and, with the astronauts no longer required to support the telescope, the crew turned their attention to preparations for landing on FD 6. Over the coming weeks, the telescope was checked out in orbit. Unfortunately, about two months after its deployment, it became apparent that the mirror on the telescope was not focusing as designed due to a production error. It was decided that a set of corrective optics would have to be developed and then installed, during the first scheduled servicing mission in 1993. This, however, was not the fault of the astronauts or the mission of STS-31, which was a complete success.

Milestones

133rd manned space flight

65th US manned space flight

35th Shuttle mission

10th flight of OV-103 Discovery

1st use of carbon brakes at landing

1st launch set earlier than planning following FRR

Highest orbit in Shuttle programme to date (600 km)

Flight Crew

RICHARDS, Richard Noel, 45, USN, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-28 (1989), STS-41 (1990)

BOWERSOX, Kenneth Duane, 36, USN, pilot

DUNBAR, Bonnie Jean, 43, civilian, mission specialist 1, payload commander, 3rd mission

Previous missions: STS 61-A (1985), STS-32 (1990)

BAKER, Ellen Louise, 39, civilian, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-34 (1989)

MEADE, Carl Joseph, 41, USAF, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-38 (1990)

DELUCAS, Lawrence James, 41, civilian, payload specialist 1 TRINH, Eugene Huu-Chau, 41, civilian, payload specialist 2

Flight Log

The longest flight to date in the Shuttle programme was made possible after an extensive modification programme for Columbia at the Rockwell facility in Cali­fornia. The upgrades comprised over fifty modifications, including the installation of a drag chute and the first fitting to any orbiter of the Extended-Duration Orbiter hardware (incorporating the EDO cryogenic pallet). The EDO pallet carried addi­tional hydrogen and oxygen supplies in the cargo bay. Other system improvements included upgraded carbon dioxide filters and stowage provision for cabin waste, additional food supplies and equipment.

USML-1 was the first of a planned series of at least four flights of the pressurised Spacelab module, which should have flown every two or three years. It was designed to advance US microgravity research efforts in several disciplines but, like many of these science-orientated Shuttle/Spacelab missions, the USML series was cancelled after

only two missions due to the changing priorities in favour of the Shuttle-Mir and ISS programmes. USML-1 featured 31 experiments, ranging from manufacturing crystals for possible semiconductor use, to studies of the behaviour of liquids in microgravity. The flight also featured an experiment in manufacturing polymers as filters for terrestrial industries and another flight of the Shuttle Amateur Radio experiment. In addition, the EDO Medical Project (EDOMP) was a series of medical investigations designed to provide further data and experience in the development of counter­measures against the adverse effects of space flight on the human body. A significant focus of this research was in the re-adaptation process upon return to Earth, looking for potential problems that might hinder a station crew in the event of an emergency escape and recovery situation.

During the two-shift operation (in which Richards, Bowersox, Dunbar and DeLucas formed the Red Team, and Baker, Mead and Trinh the Blue Team), the crew worked with a whole range of equipment for the USML payload, including four experiments in the Crystal Growth Furnace, three experiments in the Drop Physics Module and sixteen experiments using the Glove Box. There was also a surface tension-driven convection experiment, a solid surface combustion experiment, a space acceleration measurement experiment and four biological experiments in the mid-deck.

The landing was delayed by a day due to rain at the primary landing site at Edwards AFB. Mission controllers hoped to land at Edwards, where Columbia would have had more room on the runway (and substantial overshoot capacity on the dry lake beds), given that it was returning with 104,328 kg of payload and flying new landing systems. However, the landing at Kennedy occurred without incident and saved precious processing time. The mission eclipsed all previous US manned space flight durations save for those of the three Skylab missions in 1973-1974. It also set a new US duration record for a spacecraft – as opposed to a space station – mission, surpassing the Gemini 7 record set in 1965.

Milestones

151st manned space flight 78th US manned space flight 48th Shuttle mission 12th flight of Columbia

1st Extended-Duration Orbiter (EDO) mission 1st landing of OV-102 at KSC 1st use of new synthetic tread tyres 1st flight of USML laboratory configuration 6th Spacelab Long Module mission