THE APOLLO ASTRONAUTS

The 12-ycar Apollo lunar exploration program (1961 through 1972) occurred during the second half of a transformational period between the end of WW-II (1945) and the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, a period of major technological, political, economic, and cultural dynamics. Technologically, the digital computer was in its infancy, yet automation and robotics were clearly imminent. The Apollo astronauts were required to bridge this gap, as humans capable of using a computer to assist in manually operating the vast array of systems, techniques, and procedures necessary to explore the surface of the Moon. The crew had to operate the hardware manually because computers did not yet have the reliability or capability necessary to operate autonomously and by the nature of the design strategy MCC did not really "control” the spacecraft.

And at any point in the mission, the crew had to be prepared to operate on their own without any contact from Earth, using only the equipment and computers on board, together with pre-calculated manoeuvre data. For. among the many potential emergencies that could occur on such a voyage, one of the most serious was loss of communications with MCC; whereby the crew and their spaceship would be alone in the ocean of space, perhaps even on the surface of the Moon and miles from the lunar module.

During each Apollo lunar exploration mission the three astronauts were obliged to be qualified and certified in essentially seven crew’ positions;

• The CSM had three crew positions: (1) Pilot (launch, major manoeuvres, rendezvous and re-entry); (2) Navigator (inertial navigation and rendezvous); and (3) Systems Engineer (all systems including fuel cells and propulsion).

• The LM had a crew of tw o: (4) Pilot (landing, launch, and rendezvous); (5) Systems Engineer (two computers, oxygen, electrical, thermal and water management)

• The surface exploration required a crew of two: (6) Lead geologist (also LRV driver); and (7) Geologist, systems engineer (for LRV. the suits and the backpack).

NASA training for the astronaut crews was superb – every aspect of the mission was covered by expert teachers and experienced professionals. Every spacecraft and all equipment and software were tested and verified by the astronaut crews (including flight spacecraft and spacesuits in vacuum chambers). In addition to the sophisticated (for that Lime) CSM and LM simulators, training w’as received in spacecraft systems, fundamental astronautics (navigation and rendezvous), and the operations of MCC. Commanders were qualified in helicopters and the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle. All astronauts maintained flight currency in T-38 jets, received SCUBA diving (for underwater weightless training), and jungle, desert, and water survival. And for the M" missions in particular, crews had extensive geology training with many hours of classroom and laboratory work, and field exercises.

By late 1963, the first thirty astronauts had been selected – all wrere experienced pilots in high-performance jets (twenty-four w’ere Lest pilots); all had engineering degrees (twelve also had graduate degrees); and all had been trained by the military (Air Force, Navy and Marines). This group would eventually command all tw’enty – nine US manned space missions (Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo) through the end of Apollo lunar exploration in 1972. But seven died during training or flight; and eleven more w’ho were selected in later groups flew’ Apollo lunar missions.

The basic design of the lunar module had been frozen in mid-1963, but systems integration, test and checkout had not yet commenced. Apollo simulators had not yet been developed. One of the major challenges for these first astronauts (and their operational support teams) was to develop and verify the procedures by which spacecraft would be operated. This required the integration and confirmation of the delicate sequence of operating the electrical, mechanical, computer, propulsion, life – support and other systems and Apollo was far more complex than Mercury and Gemini, and certainly any contemporary aircraft. And in developing procedures, they also necessarily became major contributors to the development of mission techniques (data priority). And because of their experience and involvement in the evolution of the Apollo program, these original thirty astronauts participated in and contributed to major management and programmatic decisions at the highest level.