Foreword

It was a sound heard around the world, a faint beep-beep-beep from an object in orbit around the world named Sputnik. The date was October 4, 1957 and the U. S.S. R. had just launched the first satellite into space. The United States launched Vanguard shortly after but it was a complete failure and a humiliation to a proud nation. Then, on January 31, 1958, the United States successfully launched the Explorer into orbit on a Jupiter C rocket.

The space race was on and would have the world’s attention that has lasted to this day. Each side built and launched rockets and men into orbit in quick succes­sion. Yuri Gagarin was the first human to almost orbit the Earth, reentering just short of one complete orbit. He was the hero of the time, and the U. S.S. R. was clearly the leader in space travel. The United States could not allow the Soviets to hold that lead because of the political climate. The result was that the United States embarked on a very ambitious program, not only to catch up with the Soviets but to show technical and operational superiority in this new arena. The country that controlled space would be the envy of the world and hold a giant edge over everyone else. The military considers the “high ground” very important and many battles have been fought over it. Space is the ultimate high ground, and the Soviets made other countries and especially the United States very nervous because of Sputnik. They had the high ground and the United States could not five with the idea that they did not control that vantage point.

So, the American Space Program was born. In 1957 the old National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), formed in 1915, was dissolved and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) created to replace it. The base for NASA was the ongoing research centers at Langley in Virginia, Lewis in Cleveland, Ohio, and Dryden and Ames in California. There would soon be several additional centers dedicated to the space side of the effort: in Houston, Texas; Huntsville, Alabama; and at Cape Canaveral, Florida; plus some smaller centers around the country for specialized work. The groundwork was laid for a

launch center at Cape Canaveral, and a massive building program commenced. It was decided to keep all the space centers close to the southern edge of the country to facilitate the movement of huge structures by barge to the launch site. The “Cape”, which later became Kennedy Space Center, would become the national launch center for American astronauts to fly into space.

The U. S. Space Program was not just about placing a man in space. It was also about the technology that would allow the U. S. to do things in space that no other country could accomplish. Solid state technology replaced vacuum tubes and resulted in lower weight and size for any given device. It was also more reliable and less energy consuming. This was the kind of thinking and machinery that would get astronauts from the U. S. to the Moon and back safely and consistently. It would, incidentally, also provide the technical edge for American industry to build and sell products around the world.

The human side of the space equation was also getting started early in 1958 and 1959 when NASA selected the first seven astronauts. They were a diverse group, mostly test pilots or engineers, and in great physical shape. They were also very media friendly, and NASA made much of the Boy Scout aura around them. The first group of 7 (except for Deke Slayton who had a heart problem) went into space as part of the Mercury Project, the first step in the program to place a man on the Moon. Other groups were picked to provide more astronauts for future flights that would be more complicated and designed to mimic the maneuvers and procedures that would be required to make a lunar landing.

The Gemini Program was established to prove that the elements of a lunar landing flight could be accomplished in Earth orbit. The final plan for the lunar landing was to fly two vehicles to the Moon: a Command Module (CSM) that would serve as a mother ship and a Lunar Module (LM) that would be used to actually descend to the Moon and land. The two vehicles would separate while in lunar orbit for the LM to make the landing, and then the two vehicles would join in lunar orbit after the landing crew finished on the surface. It was a risky but high-reward plan. The maneuvers that had to be developed to make all this happen were incorporated into the Gemini program. So, the Gemini flights would test and confirm that lunar orbit rendezvous and docking could be accomplished, that space walks (EVAs) could be accomplished safely and that man could survive okay for two weeks in space. All of these objectives were accomplished and the stage was set for Apollo.

The Apollo program, the most ambitious endeavor ever attempted by mankind, was bom in 1961 when President John F. Kennedy challenged the American people to land a man on the Moon and bring him back safely within 10 years. It electrified the country and the world. NASA was ready and the funding was available quickly. America went into space. The original seven astronauts flew on the Mercury project and the next groups flew the Gemini and finally the Apollo to the Moon. Neil Armstrong was the epitome of the space traveler. He was quiet, unassuming, and the perfect person to be the role model for the space program, and that is to say nothing of his competence to do the job. The steps leading up to Apollo 11, the infrastructure of the various centers, the selection and training of astronauts from Mercury to Apollo, and the strategy designed to put a man on the Moon were all

Apollo 15 crew photo. (Left to right) Jim Irwin, Dave Scott, and A1 Worden.

accomplished with great success, providing the confidence for NASA managers to go forward to the Moon.

After the successful Apollo program, NASA conducted the Skylab space station and Space Shuttle programs. The Shuttle was designed to complete multiple missions into Earth orbit by flying a reusable vehicle much like an airplane. A wide range of scientific payloads were carried into orbit, satelhtes and planetary probes deployed, and servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope accomplished. There were also a number of scientific missions flown in pressurized laboratory modules, leading to long missions on future space stations. The Shuttle was a remarkable vehicle, much ahead of its time.

Over in the Soviet Union the emphasis focused on long-duration space flight in a series of Salyut space stations. By the 1970s there was a thaw in relations between the United States and the Soviets which resulted in a joint demonstration mission—the Apollo Soyuz Test Project—and 20 years later to further cooperation in the Shuttle – Mir space station program. This partnership has evolved today into working to­gether on the International Space Station (ISS) built with the resources of the Space Shuttle and foreign partners. The ISS has been a truly international project, with astronauts getting there via a Russian spacecraft. Soon they will be delivered to the ISS by a civilian spacecraft. Resupplies arrive on freighters from Europe and Japan

Alfred M. Worden, Apollo 15 Command Module pilot.

and crew members come from many different nations. It is at the ISS that the new skills necessary to venture away from Earth are gained.

Low Earth orbit (LEO) will become a commercial venture in the near future. The growth of space tourism will open up opportunities for many to experience, the thrill and wonder of a flight into space, but it will be up to governments and perhaps new international partnerships to do the long-term funding for flights into deep space.

I was part of the great Apollo experiment, flying as the Command Module Pilot of Apollo 15. By the time we flew in July of 1971, we were very confident in the system, the machinery, and the people in mission control. In fact we were quite comfortable doing many of the things in flight that had been done by mission control before us. For instance, we did most of our own navigation during the flight. We trained mostly for those things that could go wrong, believing that if everything went okay it would be easy. We were getting the hang of space flight, and it was beyond comprehension for a guy that grew up on a farm in Michigan. This country accomplished six lunar landings without an accident. Remarkable!!

There have been unbelievable feats achieved by many nations to get into space. There are now many countries that have the capability to send humans into space, and at least one country that could probably go to the Moon in a few years. The United States does not have long-term space capability right now, so we will be in the bleachers until this country gets back on track. In the meantime, the development of technology will be important to whatever we do in space.

The past 50 years have been rapid-growth years for the manned and unmanned space programs of many countries. We have learned much about planet Earth,

ourselves, and from the robotic spacecraft sent to explore our nearest planets. We will, as a community of nations, continue to move outward to the planets and eventually to other solar systems where there might be intelligent life. Someday we might need to go there to escape from a planet that is no longer habitable, but that is far into the future.

As the number of missions into space increase, so their exploits naturally disappear from the headlines. Only when we return to the Moon or venture to Mars will human space exploration once again be at the forefront of the world’s media or, of course in times of tragedy, as there surely will be. It is important to record the development, activities, and results from our still relatively few journeys into space.

With each mission accomplished today, a new topic of history is created for tomorrow. In decades to come, when the dawn of the space age is reflected upon, our achievements and disappointments will be scrutinized in detail. From records kept at the time future generations will learn how our adventure in space began.