Digital Computer Simulation

The computational mathematical models for the early simulators mentioned previously were performed on analog computers. Analog computers were capable of solving complex differential equations in real time. The digital computers available in the 1950s were mechanical units that were extremely slow and not capable of the rapid integration that was required for simulation. One difficulty with analog comput­ers was the existence of electronic noise within the equipment, which caused the solutions to drift and become inaccurate after several min­utes of operation. For short simulation exercises (such as a 10-minute X-15 flight) the results were quite acceptable. A second difficulty was storing data, such as aerodynamic functions.

The X-20 Dyna-Soar program mentioned previously posed a chal­lenge to the field of simulation. The shortest flight was to be a once – around orbital flight with a flight time of over 90 minutes. A large volume

of aerodynamic data needed to be stored covering a very large range of Mach numbers and angles of attack. The analog inaccuracy problem was tackled by University of Michigan researchers, who revised the standard equations of motion so that the reference point for integration was a 300- mile circular orbit, rather than the starting Earth coordinates at takeoff. These equations greatly improved the accuracy of analog simulations of orbiting vehicles. As the AFFTC and NASA began to prepare for testing of the X-20, an analog simulation was created at Edwards that was used to develop test techniques and to train pilots. Comparing the real-time sim­ulation solutions with non-real-time digital solutions showed that the clo­sure after 90 minutes was within about 20,000 feet—probably adequate for training, but they still dictated that the mission be broken into segments for accurate results. The solution was the creation of a hybrid computer simulation that solved the three rotational equations using analog com­puters but solved the three translational equations at a slower rate using digital computers. The hybrid computer equipment was purchased for installation at the AFFTC before the X-20 program was canceled in 1963. When the system was delivered, it was reprogrammed to represent the X-15A-2, a rebuilt variant of the second X-15 intended for possible flight to Mach 7, carrying a scramjet aerodynamic test article on a stub ventral fin.[737] Although quite complex (it necessitated a myriad of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions), this hybrid system was subsequently

used in the AFFTC simulation lab to successfully simulate several other airplanes, including the C-5, F-15, and SR-71, as well as the M2-F2 and X-24A/B Lifting Bodies and Space Shuttle orbiter.

The speed of digital computers increased rapidly in the 1970s, and soon all real-time simulation was being done with digital equipment. Out – of-the-window visual displays also improved dramatically and began to be used in conjunction with the cockpit instruments to provide very real­istic training for flight crews. One of the last features to be developed in the field of visual displays was the accurate representation of the terrain surface during the last few feet of descent before touchdown.

Simulation has now become a primary tool for designers, flight-test engineers, and pilots during the design, development, and flight-testing of new aircraft and spacecraft.