And Swing: Reshaping the Wing for the Jet and Rocket Age

Richard P. Hallion

The development of the swept and delta wing planform enabled practical attainment of the high speeds promised by the invention of the turbojet engine and the solid-and-liquid-fueled rocket. Refining the swept and delta planforms from theoretical constructs to practical reali­ties involved many challenges and problems requiring creative analysis and study by NACA and NASA researchers. Their insight and persever­ance led to the swept wing becoming the iconic symbol of the jet age.

HE PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN HAS WITNESSED continuous configuration changes, adaptations, and reinterpreta­tions. The canard wood-and-fabric biplane launched the powered flight revolution and gave way to the tractor biplane and monoplane, and both gave way to the all-metal monoplane of the interwar era. The tur­bojet engine set aside the piston engine as the primary motive power for long-range commercial and military aircraft, and it has been continually refined to generate the sophisticated bypass turbofans of the present era, some with afterburning as well. The increasing airspeed of aircraft drove its own transformation of configuration, measurable in the changed rela­tionship between aspect and fineness ratios. Across the primacy of the propeller-driven era, from the beginning of the 20th century to the end of the interwar era, wingspan generally far exceeded fuselage length. That changed early in the jet and rocket era. By the time military and test pilots from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) first probed the speed of sound with the Bell XS-1 and Douglas D-558-1 Skystreak, wingspan and fuselage length were roughly equal. Within a decade, as aircraft speed extended into the supersonic regime, the ratio of wingspan to fuselage length dramatically reversed, evidenced by aircraft such as the Douglas X-3, the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, and the Anglo-French Concorde Supersonic Transport (SST). Nicknames handily captured the

transformation: the rakish X-3 was known informally as the "Stiletto” and the only slightly less sleek F-104 as the "Missile with a Man in It.”

There was as well another manifestation of profound design transfor­mation, one that gave to the airplane a new identity that swiftly became a global icon: the advent of the swept wing. If the biplane constituted the normative airplane of the first quarter century of flight and the straight wing cantilever monoplane that of the next quarter century, by the time of the golden anniversary of Kitty Hawk, the swept wing airplane had sup­planted both, its futuristic predominance embodied by the elegant North American F-86 Sabre that did battle in "MiG Alley,” high over North Korea’s blue-gray hills bordering the Yalu River. In the post-Korean era, as swept wing Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 jet airliners replaced what historian Peter Brooks termed the "DC-4 generation” of straight wing propeller-driven transports, the swept wing became the iconic embodiment of the entire jet age.[1] Today, 75 years since its enunciation at an international conference, the high-speed swept wing is the commonly accepted global highway sym­bol for airports, whether an intercontinental center such as Los Angeles, Frankfurt, or Heathrow; regional hubs such as Dallas, Copenhagen, or Charlotte; or any of the myriad general aviation and business aviation air­fields around the world, even those still primarily populated, ironically, by small, straight wing propeller-and-piston-driven airplanes.

The Tailless Imperative: The Early History of Swept and Delta Wings

The high-speed swept wing first appeared in the mid-1930s and, like most elements in aircraft design, was European by birth. But this did not mark the swept wing’s first appearance in the world’s skies. The swept wing dated to before the First World War, when John Dunne had developed a series of tailless flying wing biplanes using the swept planform as a means of ensuring inherent longitudinal stability, imparting "self-correcting” res­toration of any gust-induced pitching motions. Dunne’s aircraft, while freakish, did enjoy some commercial success. He sold manufacturing
rights to the Burgess Company in the United States, which subsequently produced two "Burgess-Dunne” seaplanes for the U. S. Navy. Lt. Holden C. Richardson, subsequently one of the first members of the NACA, had urged their purchase "so that the[ir] advantages and limitations can be thoroughly determined. . . as it appears to be only the beginning of an important development in aeronautical design.”[2]

That it was, though not in the fashion Richardson expected. The swept wing remained an international staple of tailless self-stabilizing design, typified in the interwar years by the various Westland Pterodactyl aircraft designed by Britain’s G. T.R. Hill, the tailless aircraft of Boris Ivanovich Cheranovskiy, Waldo Waterman’s Arrowplane, and a series of increas­ingly sophisticated sailplanes and powered aircraft designed by Germany’s Alexander Lippisch. However, it would not become the "mainstream” ele­ment of aircraft design its proponents hoped until applied to a very dif­ferent purpose: reducing transonic aerodynamic effects.[3] The transonic swept wing effectively increased a wing’s critical Mach number (the "drag divergence Mach number”), delaying the onset of transonic drag rise and enabling an airplane to fly at higher transonic and supersonic speeds for the same energy expenditure and drag penalty that a straight wing airplane would expend and experience at much lower subsonic speeds.

In 1935, leading aerodynamicists gathered in Rome for the Volta Congress on High Speeds in Aviation, held to coincide with the opening of Italy’s impressive new Guidonia laboratory complex. There, a young German fluid dynamicist, Adolf Busemann, unveiled the concept of using the swept wing as a means of attaining supersonic flight.[4] In his presentation, he
demonstrated the circulation pattern around a swept wing that, essen­tially, "fooled” it into "believing” it was flying at lower velocities. As well, he presented a sketch of an aircraft with such a "Pfielformiges Tragwerk” ("Arrow-Shaped Lifting Surface”), though one that had, by the standards of subsequent design, very modest sweep and very high aspect ratio.[5]

Theodore von Karman recalled not quite two decades later that after­ward, at the conference banquet, "General [Arturo] Crocco, the orga­nizer of the congress and a man of far-reaching vision, went further while doodling on the back of the menu card, drawing a plane with swept – back wings and tail, and even swept propeller blades, laughingly calling it ‘Busemann’s airplane.’”[6] Evidence exists that Crocco took the concept beyond mere dinner conversation, for afterward, Guidonia researchers evaluated a design blending modestly swept wings with a "push-pull” twin-engine fuselage configuration. However, Guidonia soon returned to the more conventional, reflecting the Italian air ministry’s increas­ing emphasis upon building a large and powerful air arm incorporating already proven and dependable technology.[7]

Delegates from other nations present at Busemann’s briefing missed its significance altogether, perhaps because his gently swept configuration—in the era of the DC-2 and DC-3, which had pronounced leading edge taper— looked far less radical than the theory and purpose behind it implied. NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory researchers had already evaluated far more sharply swept planforms at Langley for a seminal wing taper study the laboratory issued the next year.[8] Thus, at first glance, Busemann’s design certainly did not look like a shape that would trans­form aviation from the firmly subsonic to the transonic, making possible the potential of the jet engine, and the jet age (with its jet set) that followed.

Therefore, for the United States and most other nations, over the next decade, the normative airplane remained one having straight (if tapered) wings and piston propulsion. For Germany, however, the future belonged to increasingly sharply swept and delta wings, and jet and rocket propulsion as well. Within 5 years of the Volta conference, with Europe engulfed in a new war, its engineers had already flown their first jet and rocket-powered aircraft, had expanded beyond Busemann’s initial conception to derive shapes more closely anticipating subsequent high-speed aircraft and missile designs, and were busily testing models of swept wing transonic airplanes and supersonic missiles. Lippisch’s swept wing sailplanes had presaged a new Messerschmitt rocket – propelled interceptor, the Me 163 Komet ("Comet”), and his broad, high aspect ratio deltas had given way to a rounded triangular planform that he envisioned as meeting the needs for transonic and supersonic flight. While many of these concepts by Lippisch and other German designers were impracticable, or unrelated to Germany’s more imme­diate military needs, others possessed significant military or research potential. Only flawed decisions by the Third Reich’s own leadership and the Allies’ overrunning of Germany would prevent them from being developed and employed before the collapse of the Hitler regime in May 1945.[9]