STS-32
Int. Designation |
1990-002A |
Launched |
9 January 1990 |
Launch Site |
Pad 39A, Kennedy Space Center, Florida |
Landed 20 |
January 1990 |
Landing Site |
Runway 22, Edwards Air Force Base, California |
Launch Vehicle |
OV-102 Columbia/ET-32/SRB BI-035/SSME #1 2024; |
#2 2022; #3 2028 |
|
Duration |
10 days 21hrs 0min 36 sec |
Callsign |
Columbia |
Objective |
Satellite deployment and LDEF retrieval mission |
Flight Crew
BRANDENSTEIN, Daniel Charles, 46, USN, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-8 (1983); STS 51-G (1985)
WETHERBEE, James Donald, 37, USN, pilot
DUNBAR, Bonnie Jean, 40, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 61-A (1985)
IVINS, Marsha Sue, 38, civilian, mission specialist 2 LOW, George David, 33, civilian, mission specialist 3
Flight Log
When the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was deployed in 1984, the plan was that it would be retrieved the following year. The NASA Space Shuttle manifest got itself into a real pickle under pressure from all directions and had to push the LDEF retrieval mission into September 1986. That would have been flight STS 61-L, commanded by Don Williams, piloted by Mike Smith-who was also assigned to 51-L Challenger – and with mission specialists Bonnie Dunbar, James Bagian and Manley Carter. After the Shuttle programme had recovered from the Challenger accident, the LDEF retrieval mission was assigned to STS-32 with the lone survivor from 61-L, Bonnie Dunbar. The commander of what was going to be one of the more high-profile Shuttle missions was the new chief of the astronauts, Dan Brandenstein.
STS-32 was subject to several delays, partly due to the longer time in getting the orbiter Columbia spaceworthy. Eventually, Columbia was rolled out to Pad 39A just after the launch of STS-33 and would be the first Shuttle to take off from this refurbished pad since STS 61-C in January 1986. It was set for a mammoth ten-day mission, starting on 18 December and taking in a Christmas in space, but problems bringing the new pad on line for launches meant a delay first to 21 December, then for three weeks to 8 January. NASA felt it prudent to give the launch and support teams a full holiday.
STS-32 retrieves LDEF after almost six years in space |
As the crew left their quarters on 8 January, they knew they would be coming back the same day because the weather gave them less than a ten per cent chance of taking off. Going through a full countdown to T — 5 minutes, however, provided a good opportunity to give Pad 39A a full workout. The following day, Columbia took off at 07: 35 hrs local time, featuring in one of the most beautiful lift-offs of a Shuttle, making a direct insertion burn to 28.5° orbit. On day two, the Shuttle’s major payload on the upward journey, Syncom IV, or Leasat 5, was deployed, and Columbia sailed on towards its dramatic meeting with the LDEF. There was a serious water leak on the third day, involving the collection of two gallons of water globules.
The complicated LDEF rendezvous was completed on the fourth day, 12 January, when Columbia flew towards, over and down to the facility, with its payload bay
doors opening towards the Earth, waiting to receive. While Brandenstein deftly manoeuvred the Shuttle as it had never been manoeuvred before, Dunbar got ready with the RMS robot arm, which she was operating using a monitor showing scenes from the TV camera at its end. Brandenstein stopped all motion and, as rehearsed hundreds of times, Dunbar made the great space catch. As pilot Jim Wetherbee flew Columbia belly first, the LDEF was manoeuvred into several positions while the other mission specialists, David Low and Marsha Ivins, took close up photographs of every part, just in case the LDEF could not be safely secured in the payload bay and had to be left in space. Following the style of the mission, LDEF was berthed in the payload bay later, after 2,093 days autonomous flying in space, pitted, torn and worn. Columbia continued on its winning way, with the crew busying themselves with an array of science experiments, a range of medical experiments under the Extended-Duration Orbiter Medical Programme (EDOMP) and Dunbar getting the news that her husband (Ronald Sega) had been selected for astronaut training.
The landing on the ninth mission day was called off by a failure of one of the suite of five computers on board, and as a result, Columbia returned to Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22 at night, and after a Shuttle-record mission lasting 10 days 21 hours 0 minutes 36 seconds – the longest five-crew space flight, and with the heaviest landing weight of 103,572 kg (228,376 lb). STS-32 was probably the most complicated space flying mission and certainly the most successful and rewarding, as scientists pored over the LDEF to see how its time in space had affected its array of different materials.
Milestones
130th manned space flight 63rd US manned space flight 33rd Shuttle mission 9th flight of Columbia
Brandenstein celebrates his 47th birthday in space (17 Jan)
Flight Crew
SOLOVYOV, Anatoly Yakovlovich, 42, Soviet Air Force, commander, 2nd mission
Previous mission: Soyuz TM5 (1988)
BALANDIN, Aleksandr Nikolayevich, 36, civilian, flight engineer
Flight Log
What was planned as a now-standard five month residency aboard the Mir complex began at 07: 16 hrs local time at Baikonur on 11 February, when Soyuz TM9 lifted off, watched by US astronaut guests Dan Brandenstein, Paul Weitz, Ron Grabe and Jerry Ross. Docking was completed two days later and, yet again, was a manual affair, with the automatic approach malfunctioning at the last moment. The TM9 cosmonauts, Anatoly Solovyov and Aleksandr Balandin, joined Aleksandrs Viktorenko and Serebrov for the traditional handover period. The TM9 residency began officially on 19 February and was due to last until 30 July, following the 22 July launch of Soyuz TM10.
The TM9 crew were expected to receive the second large add-on module, Kristall, in April and begin an intensive programme of materials processing, so that they could return to Earth with 100 kg (221 lb) of space products to make a profit of 25 million roubles from the 80 million rouble space flight. Thus, the space flight could be seen as actually contributing to the economy and not as wasteful and extravagant as it was regarded by much of the Soviet public.
As Soyuz TM9 approached Mir, TV pictures, seen on the national news, revealed that the thermal insulation blankets around the flight cabin had become unclipped. The Soviets routinely announced that at some time during the mission the crew would have to make an unscheduled spacewalk to clip them back on. No fuss was made of the event. After settling into the routine of life aboard Mir, TM8 cosmonauts Viktorenko and Serebrov left them to it, and the routine continued with the docking of the Progress M3 supply ship on 3 March.
Solovyov (right) and Balandin reviewing EVA equipment and hardware during training |
The mission proceeded very quietly, but the scheduled launch date for Kristall passed before the Soviets announced that the new module had been delayed yet again, this time until June. The crew which had trained especially to operate Kristall would only have about two months to do so, rather than the planned four months. Progress 42, the last of the original spacecraft first launched in 1978, docked to Mir on 8 May and later in the month, the most bizarre case of inaccurate and distorted media hype of the space age occurred when Aviation Week magazine “discovered” the already three – month-old story of the unclipped insulation, leading the western press to print stories of the cosmonauts being stranded in space. If there had been any danger, the Soviets would have launched an unmanned replacement ferry immediately, rather like they did with Soyuz 34 which replaced Soyuz 32 during the Salyut 6 mission of 1979. The delayed Kristall was at last launched on 31 May but at first failed to dock when a computer fouled up during the final approach. It finally moored at Mir on 10 June.
Because of the delay to the launch of Kristall, the Soviets decided to extend the TM9 mission from 29 July to 9 August and to delay the launch of the replacement TM10 from 22 July to 1 August. On 1 July, Solovyov and Balandin made a 7 hour EVA to clip back the loose insulation on their TM9 ferry. They used the Kvant 2 airlock and while exiting, opened the outer hatch before the airlock had fully depressurised. It flew open with such a force that it almost came off its hinges. Not surprisingly, after their tortuous record-breaking EVA, scrambling over the Soyuz and successfully re-clipping only two of the three insulation panels, the cosmonauts couldn’t close the hatch properly and were forced to depressurise the rest of Kvant to gain entry to Mir. Another spacewalk, lasting three hours on 26 July, closed the hatch but did not completely seal it.
It would be left for the TM10 crew to do the necessary repairs. Its cosmonauts, the “two Gennadys”, Manakov and Strekalov, arrived on Mir on 3 August, and on 9 August as advertised, Solovyov and Balandin routinely ended their mission, making a mockery of the media hype the previous June. The mission lasted 179 days 2 hours 19 minutes.
Milestones
131st manned space flight
68th Soviet manned space flight
61st Soyuz manned mission
8th Soyuz TM manned mission
16th Soviet and 39th flight with EVA operations
Baladin celebrates his 37th birthday in space (30 Jul)
STS-45 |
. SOYUZ TM18Flight Crew AFANASYEV, Viktor Mikhailovich, 45, Russian Air Force, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM11/Mir EO-8 (1990) USACHEV, Yuri Vladimirovich, 36, civilian NPO Energiya, flight engineer POLYAKOV, Valery Vladimirovich, 51, civilian, cosmonaut researcher, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM6/Mir EO-3/4 (1988) Flight Log The launch of TM18 had been delayed due to the unavailability of the more powerful Soyuz U launch vehicle to lift the three-man crew. The flight of Polyakov was a logical step in the Russian quest for long-duration space flight experience and medical data. When Polyakov devised the programme for a second space flight, he aimed for an 18-month duration, but delays forced him to curtail the duration to 14 months, as he could not remain aboard Mir when the first NASA astronaut arrived on the station, which at the time was planned for early 1995. Though he carried out his own research programme, Polyakov still participated in other tasks, working with three different resident crews until his return in March 1995. One of the first tasks on this mission was to relocate the Soyuz TM18 ferry from the aft port to the front port of the base block, which occurred on 24 January. During the short flight, the crew flew past the Kristall module and reported only minor scratches on its hull from where TM17 had struck it. Work for this resident crew was again limited by plans for the upcoming American docking missions, particularly the integration of Soyuz and Progress launches and amendments to subsequent
resident crews to accommodate the joint programme with the Americans. At the time of Afanasyev and Usachev’s flight, this national and international coordination was difficult to implement, mainly due to the lack of funds, and soon the launch of the next resident crew had slipped from April to July. However, the EO-15 crew continued their research along the lines of previous resident crews, but also conducted medical and technical experiments sponsored by German institutes. Polyakov had also supplemented the science payload with smaller items brought up in his personal baggage on TM18. In February, Sergei Krikalev was launched on the American Shuttle mission STS – 60, the first time that cosmonauts had been in space at the same time on different missions in spacecraft belonging to different nations. The following month, Progress M22 was also delayed for three days from 19 March when heavy snowfall at the launch site resulted in snow drifts covering the rail network to a depth of up to seven metres, making it impossible to move the spacecraft and its booster from the assembly building to the launch pad. At the end of March, the cosmonauts on Mir participated in an experiment with a Swedish satellite called Freja, designed to study space plasma and magnetosphere physics in Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere. Launched in 1992 by the Chinese, Freja was located 1,770 km above the Alaskan coast when the crew of Mir, situated 383 km above the Pacific south of Alaska, fired an electron beam gun at it. At the time of the experiment, a Canadian ground station monitored the operation. Despite its scientific aim of determining how charged particle beams were scattered in the atmosphere, the media still reported the experiment as a test of Russian “Star Wars” weapons. The difficulties that the post-Soviet Russia was undergoing were brought home to the cosmonauts aboard Mir in May, during unloading of the Progress M23 re-supply craft. They found that some of the food containers intended for the orbiting crew had been tampered with by ground staff, and items that should have been there were missing. Milestones 166th manned space flight 77th Russian manned space flight 18th manned Mir mission 15th Mir resident crew 70th manned Soyuz mission 17th manned Soyuz TM mission 1st Mir resident mission without scheduled EVAs Polyakov sets world endurance record for one flight of 437 days 17hrs, and a career record of 678 days 16hrs on two flights Polyakov celebrates his 52nd birthday in space (27 Apr)
Flight Crew ALTMAN, Scott Douglas, 42, USN, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-90 (1998); STS-106 (2000) CAREY, Duane Gene, 44, USAF, pilot GRUNSFELD, John Mace, 43, civilian, mission specialist 1, payload commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-67 (1995); STS-81 (1997); STS-103 (1999) CURRIE, Nancy Jane, 43, US Army, mission specialist 2, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-57 (1993); STS-70 (1995); STS-88 (1998) LINNEHAN, Richard Michael, 44, civilian, mission specialist 3, 3rd mission Previous missions: STS-78 (1996); STS-90 (1998) NEWMAN, James Hansen, 45, civilian, mission specialist 4, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-51 (1993); STS-69 (1995); STS-88 (1998) MASSIMINO, Michael James, 39, civilian, mission specialist 5 Flight Log The scheduled launch on 28 February was postponed 24 hours before tanking operations commenced when adverse weather conditions threatened launch criteria. Waiting 24 hours also gave the launch team the option of back-to-back launch opportunities, but they did not need them as launch occurred without delay on 1 March. Following the launch, controllers noted a degradation of the flow rate in one of two freon coolant loops which help dissipate heat from the orbiter. After a management review, the mission was given a “go” for its full duration. The problem had no impact on the crew’s activities and the vehicle de-orbited nominally. Hubble was grappled and secured in the payload bay by the RMS on 2 March (FD 2). A series of five EVAs were completed by the crew, working in pairs. Grunsfeld (EV1) and Linnehan (EV2) completed EVAs 1, 3 and 5, while Newman (EV3) and Massimino (EV4) completed EVAs 2 and 4. When not performing an EVA, the resting
team also acted as IV crew for those who were outside, and serviced, cleaned and prepared their own equipment ready for their next excursion. Each EVA was supported by Nancy Currie operating the RMS, with Altman and Carey photo – documenting the activities. During the first EVA (4 Mar for 7 hours 1 minute), the astronauts removed the older starboard solar array from the telescope (attached during STS-61 in December 1993) and installed a new third-generation array. The old (retracted) array was then stowed in Columbia’s payload bay for return to Earth for analysis of its condition after nine years in space. During EVA 2 (5 Mar for 7 hours 16 minutes), the new port array was installed, together with a new Reaction Wheel Assembly after the removal of the older array. The astronauts also installed thermal blankets on Bay 6, door stop extensions on Bay 5 and foot restraints to assist with the next EVA. EVA 2 also included a test of bolts located on the aft shroud doors. The lower two bolts were found to need replacing, which they accomplished successfully. EVA 3 (6 Mar for 6 hours 48 minutes) was delayed by a fault in Grunsfeld’s suit, but after changing the HUT, they continued with the EVA programme. This included replacing the Power Control Unit (PCU) with a new unit capable of handling 20 per cent of power output generated from the new arrays. The extracted PCU was the original launched on the telescope in 1990, and this operation required the telescope to be powered down. This was the first time since its launch that Hubble had been turned off. The astronauts removed all 36 connectors to the old PCU and stowed it in the payload bay before attaching the new unit within 90 minutes. One hour later, the new unit passed its tests and Hubble came back to life. EVA 4 (7 Mar for 7 hours 18 minutes) completed the first science instrument upgrade of the mission by removing the last original instrument on the telescope, the Faint Object Camera, and installing the Advanced Camera for Surveys. They also installed the first element of an environmental cooling system, called the Electronics Support Module (ESM). The rest of the system would be installed the following day. The final EVA (8 Mar for 7 hours 32 minutes) saw the installation of the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) in the aft shroud and the connection of cables to the ESM. They also installed the Cooling System Radiator on the outside of Hubble and fed radiator wires through the bottom of the telescope to connections on NICMOS. Hubble was released by the RMS on 9 March (FD 9) and the next day was a rest day for the astronauts. During the day, they took the opportunity to speak with the ISS-4 crew (Yuri Onufriyenko, Carl Walz and Dan Bursch). FD 11 saw a full systems check before landing at the first opportunity at the Cape on FD 12, rounding out a highly successful mission. At this time, there was a further Hubble service mission on the manifest (HST SM #4) in 2004 or 2005, with a close-out mission in 2010. The options of either bringing the telescope back to Earth for eventual display in a museum or leaving it in orbit, boosted to a higher apogee to reduce atmospheric drag, were still being considered when Columbia was lost in February 2003. It looked as though Hubble was likely be abandoned when its systems eventually failed, but there was also growing support both inside and outside of NASA to devote one Shuttle mission to revisit the telescope before the Shuttle fleet is retired in 2010. In October 2006, a return to Hubble was authorised for 2008 due to public and scientific demand for keeping the telescope working for as long as possible. Milestones 230th manned space flight 138th US manned space flight 108th Shuttle mission 27th flight of Columbia 52nd US and 85th flight with EVA operations 4th Hubble service mission (3B) EVA duration record for single Shuttle mission (35hrs 55 min)
Flight Crew JETT, Brent, 47, USN, commander, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-72 (1996); STS-81 (1997); STS-97 (2000) FERGUSON, Chris, 44, USN, pilot TANNER, Joe, 56, civilian, mission specialist 1, 4th mission Previous missions: STS-66 (1994); STS-82 (1997); STS-97 (2000) BURBANK, Dan, 45, USCG, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS-106 (2000) STEFANYSHYN-PIPER, Heidemarie, 43, USN, mission specialist 3 MACLEAN, Steve, 51, civilian, Canadian mission specialist 4 Flight Log Set for a 29 August launch, the lift-off for the STS-115 mission to resume space station construction was postponed due to the proximity of tropical storm Ernesto. A decision was then made to roll back the STS-115 stack into the protection of the VAB for the duration of the storm as it passed KSC. This had a scheduling impact for the Russian launch of Soyuz TMA9 in September, but later the same day, NASA managers decided to reverse the decision and began moving the Shuttle back to the pad as weather predictions improved. On 6 September, a problem with Fuel Cell #1 in Atlantis was noted when a voltage spike in the coolant pump was recorded, threatening the planned 8 September launch. Analysis indicated that this was not a problem that would prevent the launch, but when a fuel cut-off sensor in the ET caused concern during the final minutes of the count, the mission was postponed 24 hours at the T — 9 minute mark. After a nominal performance during tests, the launch was given the all clear to proceed, which it did without further incident. The delay had resulted in a short postponement of the launch of Soyuz TMA9 to the station and the shortening of the STS-115 mission by a day.
The first day in orbit found the crew preparing equipment for the docking and EVA activities, as well as inspecting the thermal protection system on the orbiter. After analysis on the ground, no significant damage was found. Prior to docking on 11 September, the orbiter was flipped to allow the ISS-13 crew to observe and photodocument the TPS. Less than two hours after docking, the crew entered the station for the first time. At the end of the day, the first EVA crew of Tanner (EV1) and Stefanyshyn-Piper (EV2) “camped-out” for the night in the Quest airlock to purge their bloodstreams of nitrogen, which would shorten EVA preparations the next day. This pair completed the first and third EVAs of the mission, with Burbank (EV3) and Canadian Steve MacLean (EV4) completing the second EVA. All three EVAs (12 Sep for 6 hours 26 minutes; 13 Sep for 7 hours 11 minutes; and 15 Sep for 6 hours 42 minutes) were associated with the installation of the P3/P4 Truss and the deployment of the solar arrays and radiators. No focused inspection of the Atlantis TPS was required after detailed analysis of the images from the crew, RMS and station inspections, so after the first two EVAs were completed, the crew rested for a couple of days and turned their attention to the transfer of logistics to and from the station. Such was the success of the first two EVAs, the crew managed to complete several get-ahead tasks along with their primary objectives. On 17 September, Atlantis undocked from ISS after a visit lasting six days. Early the next morning, as the Shuttle began preparations for the return to Earth, Soyuz TMA9 was launched from Baikonur. With 12 space explorers in orbit at the same time on three different vehicles (six astronauts on board Atlantis, three on Soyuz and three on ISS), it was the most people in space at the same time since April 2001, when the ISS-2, STS-100 and Soyuz TM32 crews (totalling 13 crew members) were all aloft. The hatches were open for 5 days 21 hours and 57 minutes and during this time, the two crews transferred 362.88 kg of hardware and 473 kg of water into the station and returned 491 kg of unwanted hardware and trash. In addition, 90.72 kg of launch lock restraints and unnecessary hardware was placed in Progress M56 for disposal. Another inspection of the TPS of Atlantis was completed the day after undocking and the following day, the Shuttle crew spoke with both the crew on ISS and the crew on the approaching Soyuz TMA9 craft in a three-way link up. On 19 September the mission was extended in order to re-check some of the TPS areas of Atlantis after small unidentified particles were found floating near the Shuttle. There were sufficient supplies to allow the mission to be extended until 22 September or for them to return to ISS for a possible rescue mission if anything untoward been found. However, analysis revealed no significant problems and Atlantis was cleared for landing on 21 September (the previous day had been ruled out due to weather concerns). In the event all went well, and Atlantis made a textbook landing at night at the SLF at the Cape. During homecoming events in Houston on 21 September, Stefanyshyn-Piper collapsed twice and had to be assisted by officials and crew members. She was not taken to hospital and the effects were attributed to her adjustment to gravity after her first 12-day flight into space. Milestones 249th manned space flight 146th US manned space flight 116th Shuttle mission 27th flight of Atlantis 19th Shuttle ISS mission 7th Atlantis ISS mission 59th US and 98th flight with EVA operations American orbital launchersThe Atlas ICBM was used to launch four manned Mercury missions in 1962-3, while the Titan II ICBM launched ten Gemini crews between 1965-6. A modified Titan II would have been used to fly the manned DynaSoar military space plane in the mid – 1960s, but this was cancelled in 1963 and replaced by the Gemini-based military Manned Orbital Laboratory. This was due to be launched on a Titan IIIM starting in 1966 but was also cancelled (in 1969), with some of its astronauts transferring to NASA. The Atlas D intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) had a thrust of 166,470 kg (367,066 lb) from two Rocketdyne LR89 engines – which were burnt out and separated at about T + 2 min 14 sec – and an LR105 central sustainer engine. These were powered by liquid oxygen and kerosene. The Atlas was stabilised at lift-off by two powerful vernier engines. The Mercury-Atlas combination was 29 m (95 ft) high. The Atlas booster for the fifth manned mission was the first of a new model to be used for Mercury and was static test-fired on the pad because the US Air Force was concerned about turbo-pump failures that had occurred on some military ICBM launches. Atlas 113D would also ascend on ignition, rather than remaining on the pad for the previously prescribed two-second hold down period. The Gemini Launch Vehicle (GLV) was a modified ICBM. Its twin first-stage LR-87 engines burned nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine hypergolic propellants which ignited spontaneously on contact. The first-stage engines had a thrust of 195,046 kg (430,076 lb). The second stage, with a smaller LR-91 engine, had a thrust of 45,359 kg (100,017 lb). First-stage cut-off came at T + 2 min 30 sec, with a “fire in the hole’’ second-stage ignition following immediately. Orbit was achieved in 5 min 30 sec after launch. The launch vehicle was 3.04m (10 ft) in diameter and with Gemini on top, was 33.22m (109ft) tall. The Saturn family of launch vehicles was developed for civilian space launches by a team led by Werner von Braun. The series built upon the successes and proven hardware of its early variants (Saturn 1 and 1B) before the huge Saturn V was used to send American astronauts to the Moon. Other variants were proposed but none were funded or built. Following a series of unmanned launches, the Saturn 1 manned missions were cancelled as unnecessary. After unmanned test flights, the Saturn 1B
launched one Apollo crew on a test flight in 1968, three Skylab space station crews in 1973-4 and the US part of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Program in 1975. Just two unmanned test flights were flown before the Saturn V carried a crew aloft for the first time. Apollo 8 and 10-17 launched their crews to the Moon in 1968-72, while Apollo 9 launched to Earth orbit as planned. The Saturn 1B launch vehicle, with the launch escape system on top of the Command Module, was 74.37 m (244 ft) tall. The launch escape system comprised a 10m (33ft) high tower with a 66,675kg (147,018lb) thrust solid propellant motor, which could be used on the pad or during the first 100 seconds of launch. When ejected, it pulled away a conical blast shield from the Command Module, exposing the latter’s five windows. The first stage of the Saturn 1B comprised eight H1 engines, developing a thrust of 743,899 kg (1,640,297 lb) and burning the RP1 and liquid oxygen propellants for the first 150 seconds. The second stage was the S-IVB cryogenic liquid oxygen/ liquid hydrogen stage that would also form the third stage of the Saturn V booster. The S-IVB was powered by the J2,102,059 kg (225,040 lb) thrust engine with a burn time of 450 seconds. This engine could be restarted. The Saturn S-IVB also included the allimportant Instrument Unit, the vehicle’s guidance and performance system. The Saturn 1B was also the first manned launch vehicle used that was not a converted ballistic missile. The Saturn V launch vehicle was 110.64 m (363 ft) high from the base of the F1 engines to the tip of the launch escape system tower. The first stage, called the S-1C, had five F1 engines developing a thrust of 3,442,801kg (7,591,376 lb) and burning liquid oxygen and RP1 propellants at a rate of 15 tonnes a second. The second stage, the S-11, also had five engines, called J2, with a thrust of 498,956kg (1,100,198 lb). The third stage was the S-IVB from the Saturn 1B launch vehicle. The whole vehicle weighed 2,903,020 kg (6,401,159 lb) at lift-off. The third stage was used for the Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI) burn to take the spacecraft out of Earth orbit and towards the Moon. The last Saturn V launch was a two-stage variant that carried the unmanned Saturn Workshop (Skylab) – itself a modified former S-IVB stage – in 1973. The earlier and larger Nova launch vehicle was abandoned in favour of the Saturn class of vehicles, which would be developed much quicker. The Space Shuttle flew its first mission in 1981 and will be retired in 2010, although the programme may be extended if there are any further delays to the completion of the International Space Station. The “Space Shuttle” is a combination of boosters, fuel tank and orbital vehicle, often termed “the stack”. The orbiter is the manned portion of the vehicle and there have been six orbiters built: OV-101 (Enterprise) was used for
atmospheric and ground tests; OV-102 (Columbia 1981-2003) was the first to launch to space and was lost in the STS-107 re-entry accident; OV-099 (Challenger 19831986) was a former structural test article and was lost in the STS 51-L launch accident; OV-103 (Discovery) is the oldest remaining vehicle and has been in service since 1984; OV-104 (Atlantis) has been used since 1985; and OV-105 (Endeavour) was built as a replacement for Challenger and was introduced in 1992. The Space Shuttle orbiter Enterprise, which was to have been refurbished for space flight later, made five approach and landing atmospheric glide flights over Edwards Air Force Base in 1977, being air-launched from the back of a Boeing 747. Three flights were piloted by NASA astronauts Fred Haise and Gordon Fullerton and the other two by Joe Engle and Richard Truly. The longest glide flight, ALT 3, lasted 5 min 34 sec. Columbia was the first space flight-worthy orbiter and weighed 99,454 kg (219,296 lb) at orbital insertion. The orbiter measured 37.24 m (122 ft) long, with a wingspan of 23.79 m (78 ft). Three liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen main engines, with a maximum thrust rating of 100 per cent, 170,098 kg (375,066 lb) each at sea level, took the orbiter into an initial orbit, which was then augmented by firing the Orbital Manoeuvring System (OMS) engines. These were powered by nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH, which also powered the reaction control thrusters. Power was provided by a liquid oxygen/ liquid hydrogen fuel cell system. A Thermal Protection System (TPS) heat shield tile system, comprising over 35,000 tiles, covered the orbiter to protect it from re-entry temperatures of between 370 and 1,260°C. A 756,453 kg (1,667,979lb), 47m (154 ft) long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide External Tank (ET), painted white on the first two missions, held the SSME liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Attached to it were two 45.46 m (149 ft) long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB), weighing 586,502 kg (1,293,237lb). Tail to nose, the Shuttle stack measured 56.144m (184ft) tall. The orbiter, an unpowered glider, had conventional flaps, rudder and ailerons for control in the atmosphere. Columbia’s STS-1 landing speed was 344kph (214mph). Improvements were made to the Shuttle fleet all the time. For example, Challenger was equipped with SRBs with an uprated thrust of 1,469,200 kg (3,239,586 lb) on its first mission, as well as main engines which were throttled up to 104 per cent for the first time. It also carried a new lighter weight external tank. Much of the areas covered with Low Temperature Surface Insulation tiles on Columbia were covered by lighter blankets of Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation on Challenger. TO THE MOONThe space race ultimately turned into the Moon race after President Kennedy’s challenge in May 1961 for the USA to land a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Human space exploration wasn’t going to involve step-by-step advances, but a crash programme. Gemini To cover the steps that still needed to be learned a new programme, Gemini, was devised. Now, the Americans could develop the technologies and experience required to go the Moon, including spacewalks, rendezvous and docking and long-duration flights. Ten crewed flights were launched between 1965 and 1966. The distinctive black and white Gemini spacecraft consisted of two components; the re-entry module, of similar configuration but larger than Mercury, with a pressurised cabin, re-entry control, and rendezvous and recovery sections; and the adapter module, with retro-rockets and equipment. Gemini 3 – which did not carry rendezvous systems – weighed 7,111 kg (15,680lb) and measured 5.58m (18ft) long with a base diameter of 2.28 m (7.5 ft). The re-entry module was 3.35m (11ft) long and 2.28 m (7.5 ft) at its heat shield base. Gemini 3’s systems included a 100 per cent oxygen environmental control system, electrical batteries – fuel cells would be fitted for the first time on Gemini 5 – sixteen liquid-fuelled orbital attitude and manoeuvring system thrusters, and four solid propellant 1,133 kg (2,498 lb) thrust retro re-entry control system rockets. Gemini was also equipped with ejection seats and did not have a launch escape system. There was a drogue and one main parachute, and the landing sequence ended with Gemini moving from vertical to 30° horizontal position for splashdown. MERCURY ATLAS 91963-015A 15 May 1963 Pad 14, Cape Canaveral, Florida 16 May 1963 128 km southeast of Midway Island, Pacific Ocean Atlas 130D; spacecraft serial number SC-20 1 day 10 hrs 19 min 49 sec Faith 7 First US 24-hour space flight Flight Crew COOPER, Leroy Gordon Jr., 36, USAF, pilot Flight Log Such was the increased confidence in the Mercury spacecraft and manned space flight, that NASA not only planned a flight three times as long as Schirra’s, but also increased the duration again in November 1962 to a full 22 orbits. The man in the hot seat, Gordon Cooper, was named the same month, with a May 1963 launch date as the target. Cooper, who affirmed his faith in God, his country and the Mercury team by naming his spacecraft Faith 7, had a packed flight plan, with emphasis on photography. He called the mission, the “flying camera’’. The camera was fixed on to the tripod on 22 April and was ready to go on 14 May. Unfortunately, the gantry tower refused to budge because water had seeped into its diesel fuel pump and when the gantry was moved away two hours later, radar data from the Bermuda tracking station was insufficient and the launch was scrubbed. Not so on 15 May, when the relaxed Cooper awoke from a catnap in Faith 7 in time to be launched at 08: 04 hrs local time. He reached his 32.5° orbit with an apogee of 267 km (166 miles) and a peak velocity of 28,238 kph (17,547 mph) five minutes later. Cooper remained extremely unruffled and calm throughout the flight, which featured the first in-flight television from a US spacecraft, although the pictures were disappointing. Cooper’s photography from Faith 7, however, was a revelation, confirming to observers his own reports of being able to see the wakes of ships and smoke from a log cabin in the Himalayas with the naked eye. Cooper deployed a small flashing beacon from Faith 7, the first deployment in history, as well as a tethered balloon like Schirra’s. The flight went swimmingly, with Cooper becoming the first American to sleep in space, but during the nineteenth orbit, the astronaut noticed the one-G light coming on, which apparently detected the onset of gravity. Tracing the cause, the astronaut discovered that the attitude and stabilisation control system a/c converter had failed. The astronaut would have to perform an
entirely manual re-entry, which he did perfectly, splashing down just 7 km (4 miles) from the USS Kearsage, 128 km (80 miles) southeast of Midway Island in the Pacific Ocean, at T + 1 day 10 hours 19 minutes 49 seconds, the longest launch-to-landing solo US manned space flight in history. A planned three-day mission (Mercury-Atlas 10/Freedom II, flown by Alan Shepard) was mooted but scrapped, and the Mercury programme ended officially on 12 June 1963 Milestones 10th manned space flight 6th US manned space flight 6th and final Mercury manned flight 1st satellite deployment from manned spacecraft
Flight Crew BYKOVSKY, Valeri Fyodorovich, 28, Soviet Air Force, pilot Vostok 5 TERESHKOVA, Valentina Vladimirovna, 26, Soviet Air Force, pilot Vostok 6 Flight Log The much-rumoured launch of Vostok 5 was delayed by bad weather on 13 June but the following day, at 17:00 hrs local time at Baikonur, launch pad 1 reverberated to the sound of another SL-3 ignition as cosmonaut Valeri Bykovsky began what was planned as a long-duration mission. At 4 days 23 hours 6 minutes, it actually became (and still remains) the longest manned solo space flight in history. Vostok 5 entered a 65° inclination orbit with an apogee of 209 km (130 miles) as rumours persisted that another Vostok would be launched the following day. It was to be a Vostok that would overshadow Bykovsky’s feat. Vostok 6 carried the first woman (and tenth human) to venture into space. Valentina Tereshkova was launched at 14: 30 hrs Baikonur time. Reflecting the frenetic space activity of the 1960s, in between the Vostok 5 and 6 launches, the USA had performed six satellite launches, all from California. Vostok 6 entered a 65° inclination orbit with a peak altitude of 218 km (135 miles) and almost immediately came to within 5 km (3 miles) of Vostok 5 for a brief encounter, which according to the western press went much further, with such headlines as “Valya chases her space date’’. As Tereshkova was not a pilot, it was perhaps inevitable that she reportedly had difficulties in adapting to weightlessness, but the rumours of her being so ill that she pleaded to come home seem far-fetched, as it appears that the flight, originally
planned to be a 24-hour affair, was in fact extended. The launch of a woman into space was undoubtedly a major propaganda coup for Premier Khrushchev, who may have ordered such a mission, a theory supported by the fact that the next woman to fly into space was not launched until 1982. Tereshkova was the first of the space pair to land, 624 km (388 miles) northeast of Karaganda at mission elapsed time of 2 days 22 hours 50 minutes. As the landing was a nominal one, she is thus the only woman to end a space flight outside her spacecraft, as well as the only one to make a solo female space flight. Bykovsky was the third Vostok pilot to experience a partial separation of the descent module but the separation occurred prior to the worst part of the re-entry profile and he returned to Earth about 540 km (336 miles) northwest of Karaganda. Plans were set in motion for a Vostok 7 mission lasting a week, by “non-cosmonaut” doctor Boris Yegorov, in the summer of 1964 but, like the US Mercury programme, the Soviet Vostok project ended after six flights. However, the next series of spacecraft (Soyuz, or “Union”) would not be ready for some time and so in order to appear ahead in the space race with the Americans, the Vostok was converted into what seemed to outsiders to be a radically new and improved spacecraft – Voskhod. Milestones 11th and 12th manned space flights 5th and 6th Soviet manned space flights 5th and 6th Vostok manned flights 1st space flight with female crew (Vostok 6) 1st joint male-female space flight Bykovsky has held the solo space flight record for over 43 years On 27 June 1963, Robert Rushworth, 39, of the USAF flew X-15-3 on the third astro – flight, to 88 km. Less than a month later, on 19 July 1963, Joe Walker, 42, flew the same vehicle on the fourth astro-flight, this time to 105 km. Finally this year, on 22 August 1963, Walker flew X-15-3 to 107 km in the fifth astro-flight, the highest altitude any X-15 would attain.
Flight Crew KOMAROV, Vladimir Mikhailovich, 37, Soviet Air Force, commander FEOKTISTOV, Konstantin Petrovich, 38, civilian, flight engineer YEGOROV, Boris Borisovich, 27, civilian, doctor Flight Log Voskhod (“Sunrise”) 1 provided the classic illustration of how the secret Soviet space programme completely misled the west. After the Vostok missions, Sergei Korolyov, the then anonymous space designer, considered improvements to the basic spacecraft to allow longer missions by more than one passenger. These studies led to the design of a new spacecraft, Soyuz, which would perform Earth orbital and lunar looping missions and support a possible lunar landing programme. Delays to Soyuz meant that there would be a hiatus in the manned space programme, to which Premier Khrushchev reacted in customary fashion, demanding a multi-crewed space flight before the United States launched its two-man Gemini spacecraft in early 1965. As Soyuz could not be accelerated, Korolyov responded with a version of the uprated Vostok. But in order to launch three men rather than two, as the Americans were planning, practically all the “stuffing” had to be taken out of Vostok and the crew would have to fly without spacesuits and without any means of emergency escape. Voskhod would, however, carry a back up retro-rocket. Despite the imperfections of Voskhod, seven cosmonauts seemed happy to be assigned to train for the most risky manned space flight in history. The three to be chosen were a commander, Vladimir Komarov, a scientist, Konstantin Feoktistov – who, it turned out, was the man who helped design Vostok to fly with three passengers – and a doctor, Boris Yegorov. They arrived at the launch pad wearing cotton overalls and leather flying helmets, about to board the first SL-4 booster to fly a manned crew a few days after the one and only “test flight” of the “new” Voskhod, as Cosmos 47. Launch came at 12: 30hrs Baikonur time and soon after the spacecraft had reached its 65°, 409 km (254 miles)
maximum altitude orbit, the western media went wild, reporting that Russia had launched a “mammoth” new spaceship in which the scientist and doctor would perform experiments while the commander controlled the mission. In truth, the conditions were so cramped inside the Voskhod that it must have been hard to eat and go to the toilet, let alone perform experiments, although Yegorov apparently performed some basic medical checks. Khrushchev had the propaganda success he wanted, but as he was congratulating the crew by telephone, the receiver was taken from his hands. The Brezhnev-Kosygin takeover had begun and it was they who greeted the fortunate cosmonauts after they had landed safely. The crew remained in the spherical capsule as small retro – rockets fired just before touchdown to cushion the impact, some 310 km (193 miles) northeast of Kustanai. The mission lasted just 1 day 17 minutes 3 seconds, the shortest three-crew flight in history. The three-man crew apparently requested an extension but were refused by Korolyov, who quoted Shakespeare: “There are more things in heaven and Earth, Horatio…” At the time, no one knew the name of the chief designer, who had one more spacecraft to design before he succumbed to ill health in January 1966. Milestones 13th manned space flight 7th Soviet manned space flight 7th Vostok manned flight 1st Voskhod manned variant flight 1st three-person crew 1st flight by crew without spacesuits 1st flight with no launch escape or ejection system 1st Soviet space flight to end with crew inside spacecraft 1st space flight with non-pilot, civilian crew 1965-022A 18 March 1965 Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan 19 March 1965 180 km northeast of Perm, Siberia R7 (11A57); spacecraft serial number (11F63/3KD) #4 1 day 2hrs 2 min 17 sec Almaz (Diamond) First Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA – spacewalk) demonstration Flight Crew BELYAYEV, Pavel Ivanovich, 39, Soviet Air Force, commander LEONOV, Alexei Arkhipovich, 30, Soviet Air Force, pilot Flight Log The second of a planned series of multi-crew Voskhod missions got underway at 12: 00 Baikonur time, entering a 65° inclination orbit with the highest manned apogee to date of 495 km (308 miles). Instead of three crewmen without spacesuits, there were two, this time suitably attired. This Voskhod had been reconfigured to carry a telescopic airlock leading from the crew cabin. The space where the third seat had been was left free to give one of the crewmen, Alexei Leonov, the room in which to don an emergency oxygen backpack and connect an umbilical air and communications tether to his spacesuit, before crawling through the airlock after the spacecraft had been depressurised. The first walk into open space began at the start of the second orbit of Voskhod, as Leonov emerged from the airlock at the end of his 5 m (16 ft) tether, watched by two television and film cameras attached to the end of the airlock and on top of the backup retro-rocket. Leonov cavorted in space doing cartwheels, not for show but because he was essentially out of control as his umbilical snaked around. His official free spacewalk lasted 12 minutes 9 seconds, but he was in the vacuum environment for about 20 minutes, since he couldn’t get back into the airlock. His spacesuit had ballooned more than anticipated and he had to squeeze himself back into the airlock quite forcibly before closing the hatch and re-pressurising the spacecraft. Unfortunately, he forgot to retrieve the film camera which would have shown clear photos of the EVA rather than the blurred and fuzzy television reproductions. Nonetheless, Leonov’s exploits had a dramatic effect on the watching world, capturing more headlines than Gagarin himself, and this mission was one of the highlights of the “Space Age’’ of the 1960s. The rest of the flight went quietly until they
attempted retro-fire at the end of the seventeenth orbit. The prime retro-rocket in the instrument module of Voskhod failed to fire because of a sensor attitude control malfunction. The cosmonauts made one more orbit as, not without a certain amount of drama, preparations were made to fire the back-up retro-pack on the next pass. The instrument section was apparently jettisoned (again not cleanly) before this, and the Voskhod spherical flight cabin was manually orientated by Belyayev, who punched the retro-pack arming device. The re-entry was quite dramatic and the capsule naturally missed the main recovery area by 960 km (597 miles), landing in the thick, snow – covered forest near the city of Perm. A damaged telemetry antenna made it impossible for the rescue teams to locate the craft, so the cosmonauts put their emergency landing training into effect, lighting a fire and waiting for rescue. However, ravenous wolves compelled their return to the capsule and it was two and a half hours before a helicopter spotted the capsule, thanks to the parachutes which were splayed out across the tree tops. Ground vehicles rescued the crew after they had spent a night in the forest. Observers in the west, expecting a landing announcement to be made at the end of the seventeenth orbit, suspected that something was wrong and were only told of the touchdown when the crew had been located, four hours later. The drama of the landing events was only fully revealed a year later, rather perversely, after the emergency US landing of Gemini 8. Flight time was 1 day 2 hours 2 minutes 17 seconds. This proved to be the last Voskhod manned mission. There had originally been plans for a series of at least seven manned Voskhod flights. Voskhod 3 was to have been a two-man 15-20-day extended scientific mission, and then Voskhod 4 would have flown a 15-day biomedical mission with a cosmonaut doctor in the crew. Voskhod 5 would be an all female crew with an EVA, Voskhod 6 was a 14-day EVA mission featuring the use of a small manoeuvring unit, and Voskhod 7 would attempt tether dynamics with the spent upper stage before flying a 10-15 day mission. There was also a plan to include a professional Soviet journalist on board a Voskhod but all these flights were cancelled. Milestones 14th manned space flight 8th Soviet manned space flight 8th Vostok manned flight 2nd Voskhod manned variant flight 1st manned space flight with two crew 1st space flight with EVA operations 1st extended mission
Flight Crew GRISSOM, Virgil Ivan “Gus”, 39, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Mercury-Redstone 4 (1961) YOUNG, John Watts, 35, USN, pilot Flight Log Project Gemini was born as the logical follow-on to the Mercury programme, but its raison d’itre was changed by President Kennedy’s pledge to land a man on the Moon before 1970. Gemini was to act as the testing ground for all the manoeuvres and operations to be performed on an Apollo mission, but in Earth orbit – orbital manoeuvring, rendezvous, docking, extended flights and spacewalking. The task of Gemini 3 was straightforward: with the aid of the first computer on a manned spacecraft, Gemini 3 would change its orbit. The crew was chosen at the time of the Gemini 1 unmanned test flight and was well into training by the time unmanned Gemini 2 had become the first to be recovered. Command pilot Gus Grissom and his pilot John Young, the Taciturn Twins as they were dubbed, were overshadowed by the exploits of Voskhod 2 five days earlier, particularly as Gemini 3 was to make only a modest three orbits. The crew were lying in their ejector seats inside Gemini 3 at 07: 30 hrs, waiting for a 09: 00 hrs launch. At T — 35 minutes, the Titan II first-stage oxidiser line sprang a leak and a handy wrench was required, delaying the launch by 24 minutes. The hypergolic engines of the Titan gave out a high-pitched whine and sprang to life and the mission lifted off. As the second stage ignited while still attached to the first stage, its exhaust spewing out of the lattice framework between the two, the rocket was surrounded by a bright aurora, disconcerting the pilot. After reaching the 32.5°, 224km (139 miles) peak apogee orbit, the crew was immediately assigned to a series of science
experiments, including a sea urchin cell growth experiment, which failed because Grissom was rather heavy-handed with it. At last, the frustrated astronauts had some real space flying to do as, at T + 1 hour 30 minutes, Grissom performed the first orbital manoeuvring system burn, for 75 seconds. Two more burns followed, with the last placing Gemini 3’s perigee at 72 km (45 miles), low enough to ensure re-entry even if the retros failed to fire, which they didn’t. Grissom tried to use Gemini’s lift capability to reduce a predicted landing miss but the capability of the spacecraft was less than anticipated and resulted in a 111 km (69 miles) miss. As Gemini assumed splashdown position, it literally yanked from vertical to an almost horizontal position, pitching the crew forward and smashing Grissom’s faceplate against the instrument panel. The flight ended near Grand Turk Island in the Atlantic Ocean at T + 4 hours 52 minutes 51 seconds, the shortest US two-crew mission. The landing miss meant a long wait in heaving seas but Grissom – remembering Liberty Bell – elected to stay on board with the hatch well and truly closed. Grissom lost his pre-launch breakfast and both doffed their spacesuits in the heat. They later walked rather ignominiously along the deck of the carrier Intrepid, to which they had been helicoptered, in sporting underwear beneath bathrobes. After the Liberty Bell 7 incident, Grissom named his next space craft “Molly Brown’’ after the hit Broadway show “The Unsinkable Molly Brown”. NASA was not happy about this and asked him to change the name, but when he indicated that his second choice was “Titanic” they relented. “Molly Brown” became the last named American spacecraft until Apollo 9 in March 1969. Gemini 3 became known as the “corned beef sandwich flight”, when afterwards it was revealed that Young had been reprimanded for carrying food aboard and offering it to Grissom who, on taking a hefty bite, spread crumbs around the cabin. The prank was, not surprisingly, hatched by the back-up command pilot, Wally Schirra, who put the sandwich into Young’s spacesuit, but the joke got out of hand and became the subject of a Congressional inquiry. The cost of the sandwich, which Schirra had bought in Cocoa Beach, escalated, and it became known as the “$30 million sandwich’’. Milestones 15th manned space flight 7th US manned space flight 1st Gemini manned flight 1st manned space flight to perform orbital manoeuvres 1st US two-man crew mission 1st flight by crewman on second mission |