Category The International Space Station

“Today is the scheduled launch of STS-110, which will be bringing up the S-0 Truss segment… I am very much looking forward to the arrival of Atlantis and her crew. They promise to bring new care packages from home, fresh ‘smells’ of the Earth and old friends. We know that the work pace will once again speed up, but we are ready! We worked many hours together on the ground developing procedures to use the Space Station robotic arm (SSRMS) as a ‘cherry picker’ as we manoeuvre space walkers ‘flying’ on the end of the arm. This will be the first time that this new arm will be used in such a capacity… Later we heard that the launch was delayed. It is disappointing, but I am fairly familiar with launch delays and understand what the crew is feeling right now. There are many things that need to come together before the SRBs ignite. Some we can control, some we can’t.’’

On the new launch day the countdown proceeded to T — 5 minutes when it was held due to a software difficulty. Atlantis finally climbed away from LC-39B at 16: 44, April 8, 2002, just 12 seconds before the end of the 5-minute launch window. Mission Specialist Jerry Ross was beginning his record-breaking seventh spaceflight. The ISS was high over the Atlantic Ocean and approaching the US eastern seaboard as a live video link with MCC Houston allowed the Expedition-4 crew to watch Atlantis climb into space.

In its payload bay Atlantis carried the first segment of the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS). The $600 million, 13.4m long S-0 (Starboard-0) ITS would be attached to Destiny’s upper surface and would form the centre element of the 100 m long ITS. Later Shuttle flights would deliver a further eight ITS elements, to be located four on either side of the S-0 ITS. The elements on the station’s port (left) side would be numbered P-1, P-3, P-4, P-5, P-6, with P-6 being re-located from its temporary position on top of the Z-1 Truss. Those segments on the starboard (right) side would be numbered S-1, S-3, S-4, S-5, S-6. P-3, and P-4 would be launched as a single combined unit, as would S-3 and S-4. The P-2 and S-2 ITS elements had been part of a larger Space Station Freedom design, but had been deleted when the ISS design was downsized. The remaining ITS elements were not renumbered at that time and there are no P-2 and S-2 ITS in the current ISS design. STS-110 would also deliver the $190 million Mobile Transporter (MT) for the SSRMS. Built in Canada, the MT will allow the SSRSM to travel along rails on the ITS following the delivery of the Mobile Base System onboard a later flight.

Nine minutes after launch Atlantis was in orbit and Bloomfield set up the orbiter’s computers for the rendezvous with ISS. The payload bay doors were opened on schedule allowing the flight to continue. Ochoa described the view of the payload bay through the flight deck’s rear windows, including the S-0 ITS, “It takes up pretty much the whole payload bay. You just look out and you think ‘Wow, it looks beautiful and we can’t wait to get started on operations.’ We’re just raring to go.’’ The crew began their sleep period at 21:44, and began their first full day in space at 05: 44, April 9. Bloomfield’s crew spent the day performing the standard rendez­vous routines and preparing their equipment for the docked operations ahead. Onboard ISS, the Expedition-4 crew spent their time preparing for their visitors, having adjusted their sleep period routine to match that of the STS-110 crew. The crew on ISS described Atlantis as a ‘‘hot star on our tail’’. On Atlantis the day ended at 20: 44.

Following a textbook rendezvous Bloomfield and Frick gently docked Atlantis to Destiny’s ram at 12: 05, April 10. On ISS, Bursch rang the ship’s bell that had been installed by the Expedition-1 crew to welcome their first visitors since occupying the station in December. After two hours of post-docking checks the hatches between the two spacecraft were opened at 14: 07. Bursch reported, ‘‘I’m just so happy to see other faces.’’

Following a Safety Briefing from Onufrienko the two crews began a rehearsal of the procedures required for the installation of the S-0 ITS on the upper surface of Destiny. During the procedures, Ochoa and Bursch put the SSRMS through the manoeuvres required to transfer the S-0 from Atlantis’ payload bay to its location on Destiny. Meanwhile, Smith and Walheim transferred the equipment required for their first EVA from Atlantis to the Equipment Fock in Quest. Morin and Ross transferred the Commercial Protein Crystal Growth High Density (CPCG-H) experi­ment from Atlantis to the station and powered it on. Data received on the ground showed that it had survived the journey into space without damage. The day ended at 20: 44.

Both crews were woken up at 04: 44, April 11, to begin the assembly work that was the highlight of the flight. Ochoa and Bursch used the SSRMS to grapple the 13.5-tonne S-0 ITS at 05: 00. Thirty minutes later S-0 was out of the payload bay. It was then manoeuvred into place above the Fab Cradle Assembly on Destiny and lowered to a semi-rigid fixing just under four hours after the task was begun. Throughout the installation Bloomfield and Frick operated Atlantis’ RMS so that its cameras could provide additional views to Ochoa and Bursch.

In his pre-launch interview on the NASA Human Spaceflight website Bursch had described the S-0 ITS and the tasks involved in mounting it on ISS in the following terms:

‘‘The S-0 is the first segment that comes up that is crossways on the Fab. And so structurally it’s the backbone of the truss that will be installed on the Fab. Second of all, the S-0 will bring up some equipment onboard that will allow the American segment… of the space station to determine its own attitude, and also to determine its rate. Right now we have computers on the American segment that can control the attitude of station, but we get all of our attitude data, meaning how the Space Station is positioned in space and where it’s positioned in space,

from the Russian segment. It’ll be the first time that we’ll be able to do that by ourselves on Space Station. It’ll have GPS [Global Positioning System satellite] antennas that will be able to not only determine a state vector, or a position and a velocity and acceleration in space, but also the attitude of Space Station while it’s flying.

Right now there are four space walks scheduled for, in the installation of the S-0 Truss… we’re going to be using the Big Arm [SSRMS], so myself and Ellen Ochoa will be grappling the S-0 Truss in the Space Shuttle payload bay picking it up out of the payload, and it basically takes up just about the entire payload bay of the Shuttle, pick it up, move it over to the port side, and eventually install it on the top of the Lab. And then there’ll be some preliminary mechanical connections that are made just to hold it temporarily on Space Station. [W]e’ll actually have the two space walkers, Steve Smith and Rex Walheim, waiting in the airlock while we do that… and then they go out the hatch. And there’s some struts… to better structurally attach the S-0 Truss to the Laboratory… There’re two in the front and two in the back of the S-0 that go to the Lab, and those have to be attached… we have mechanical connections that need to be made, to fix the S-0 Truss to the

Lab; there’s also umbilicals that need to be connected, and these are for power to some of the equipment that we have on the S-0 Truss, it’s also data to some of the computers that we have in the S-0 Truss, there’s also video channels that will eventually go to the Mobile Transporter and to the Mobile Base System that comes up on a later mission… There’s a time limit in attaching the S-0 Truss, because there’s equipment, once we take it out of the payload bay, we undo a remote umbilical that powers some of this equipment while it’s in the Space Shuttle payload bay; once we take it out of the payload bay then there’s a clock that starts ticking that says we need to get power to this equipment before, or else we have the chance of losing some of the equipment on S-0.’’

Bursch had only hinted at the S-0’s complexity. It carried over 100 electrical and fluid connectors that would allow current and fluids to flow across the length of the completed ITS. It also contained a number of computers among its 475,000 individual parts. Walz described its function with the following words:

“The addition of the S-0 Truss plus the new command and control software that will come up about a month earlier will allow the U. S. to have a full guidance and navigation capability equivalent to what we have on the Russian segment. So we’ll have GPS antennas and also we have the rate gyro assemblies, and so we will have data from both the U. S. and the Russian segment. And it’ll just make the station a more reliable station, because if one source of data for some reason cuts out, we have this equivalent data on the other side. So it’s just a more robust station.’’

Smith and Walheim had been inside Quest, preparing for the first of four EVAs on STS-110. They exited the airlock at 10:38, and Walheim became the first person to ride the SSRMS. Smith made his own way around the exterior of ISS. Smith, who was making his sixth EVA remarked, “Beautiful, beautiful,’’ as he viewed the sight in front of him. “This is incredible, unbelievable! Amazing! Amazing!’’ added Walheim, who was on his first EVA.

They worked together and unfurled two of the four mounting struts on the S-0 ITS and attached them to Destiny, making permanent fixtures. Next, they deployed trays of avionics equipment and connected a series of power, data, and fluid lines between S-0 and Destiny. They also connected an umbilical system between S-0 and the MT. The MT would run along a small rail track mounted on the ram face of the ITS and act as a mobile base for the SSRMS during future assembly tasks. Through­out the multitude of tasks, Ross and Walz directed the EVA from the Shuttle’s aft flight deck. When the tasks took more time than expected the EVA was extended by one hour. Even then, the astronauts’ limited oxygen supply led to a halt being called before they had installed the final two circuit breakers on S-0. The EVA ended with the astronauts’ return to Quest at 18:24, after 7 hours 48 minutes outside. Both crews began their sleep periods at 20: 44.

April 12 began at 04: 44 for Bloomfield’s crew. Onufrienko’s crew woke up 30 minutes later. The day was occupied by a series of transfers between the two spacecraft. Morin and Ross moved an experimental plant growth chamber from

Atlantis to a rack in Destiny. It would replace the malfunctioning protein crystal growth experiment, which was moved into Atlantis for return to Earth. Walheim and Ochoa installed a new freezer in Destiny, to store future crystal samples. Oxygen and nitrogen was transferred from Atlantis to ISS to replenish the supply in Quest’s tanks. The astronauts completed a number of live interviews in the middle of the day. They also watched a live broadcast by NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe, in which he voiced his vision for the future of NASA. In the afternoon the transfer work continued. The Biomass Production System-Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing Operation (BPS-PESTO) and the Protein Crystal Growth-Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen Dewar (PCG-EGN) were both transferred from Atlantis to the station. Both crews had two hours free time before beginning their sleep periods at 20:44.

Meanwhile, the powering up of the S-0 ITS systems had begun almost as soon as the first EVA had finished and had continued since that time. The four computers on the ITS were performing as planned, as were the new devices for determining the position of the station relative to Earth. The Global Positioning System antennae and the truss’ thermal control system were all functioning within normal parameters.

April 13 began at 04: 44, with both crews being woken up for another day of EVA. Ross and Morin left Quest at 10: 09. Ross, who was on his seventh flight and was making his eighth EVA had been an astronaut for 20 years and had specialised in EVA, participating in the development of many of the tools that his colleagues would use to construct ISS. As he told a pre-flight interview, “I know what to expect. I can’t wait to do it again… I think it’s a religion. Literally, it’s the human being in the space element as close as you can get. To do it safely and efficiently is a challenge.’’ Ross and Morin were both grandfathers and had therefore earned themselves the nick­name the Silver Team for their EVAs. During the EVA, Smith, working inside the station, asked Morin, “how do you like this fraternity so far?’’ Morin replied, “It’s pretty wild.’’ Once the two men had collected their tools Morin rode the work platform in the end-effector of the SSRMS, while Ross made his own way around the exterior of the station. They lowered the second pair of struts supporting the S-0 ITS and connected them permanently to Destiny before removing the panels and clamps that had supported the truss during launch.

The two men also connected a second cable and reel to the MT; the two systems operated independently, offering redundancy in the case of failure. Ross attempted, unsuccessfully, to remove a restraining bolt from the mechanism designed to guillotine the MT umbilical in an emergency. The attempt was abandoned rather than waste precious time. Both men returned to Quest and the EVA ended at 17: 39, after 7 hours 30 minutes. Following the EVA, Frick fired Atlantis’ manoeuvring thrusters in the first of three series of burns to raise the station’s orbit.

During the day, the first readings were made with the PCG-EGN experiment, which had been placed in Zarya. A muffler installed following transfer to the station had to be removed on April 15, when it caused humidity to rise inside the environ­ment chambers of the experiment. The final samples were also recovered from the ADVASC and the experiment was powered off before being transferred to Atlantis for return to Earth. Both crews ended their day at 20: 44.

Smith and Walheim’s third EVA was on April 14; they left Quest at 09:48. Smith rode the SSRMS while Walheim relied on the strength in his arms to move himself around. Their first task was to release the claw-like device that had originally held the S-0 ITS in place above Destiny, before its four legs were lowered and secured in place. Next, they reconfigured a number of electrical and data connections on the SSRMS, to allow it to be commanded through the S-0 ITS. The cables had become stiff in the cold of space and Smith reported, “These cables are again sticking together [as they had on the first EVA]. It’s a little scary taking them apart because they’re fibre optics.’’ They changed and tested the primary series of connectors before changing and testing the back-up system. At one point Smith admired the view of Earth far below him, remarking, “Beautiful place we live.’’

Moving on, they released the clamps securing the MT in its launch position. This cleared the way for the first tests of the system, planned for April 15. Tests of the new SSRMS connections took longer than planned, so activities using the SSRMS to move an EVA handrail from its launch position on the side of the S-0 ITS were cancelled. Smith and Walheim returned to Quest and ended their EVA at 16: 15, after 6 hours 27 minutes. Following the EVA, Frick performed the second series of manoeuvres to raise the station’s orbit. Inside the station the crew began preparing the ZCG experiment for a 15-day run, beginning on April 22. They also moved the Commercial Generic Bio-processing Apparatus (CGBA) from Atlantis to the station. The workday ended at 20: 44.

After waking up at 04: 44, April 15, the crews spent the day transferring equip­ment from Atlantis to ISS. Meanwhile, controllers in Houston began the first tests of the MT. At 08 : 22, the MT was commanded to move, at less than 2 cm per minute, from its initial position. The small flatbed car was then commanded to travel 5 m along the track, to its first work position. After approximately 30 minutes of travel­ling a software problem prevented the car automatically latching itself to the ITS at the work site as it should have done to stabilize itself. Controllers sent a series of commands to achieve the latching down. After moving to a second work site, the car again required the commands to latch it to the ITS to be sent manually, as indeed it did after it returned to the first work site. In all, the car had travelled approximately 22 m at rate of 2.5 cm per second. With the exception of the latching software all MT systems functioned as planned. The work day ended at 20: 44.

At a post-EVA press conference at Houston, STS-110 launch package manager Ben Sellari reported, “We did have a very successful activation of the Mobile Transporter… I think what we’re finding out is how the Mobile Transporter works in zero gravity.’’ On the problems encountered with the MT, Sellari stated that he believed that the MT’s wheels had become misaligned with the two magnetic strips that they travelled along, causing the system to shut down.

Walz had described the MT’s first motion in the following terms: “It moved from its launch position to the initial work site… It works on a standard command from the computer and then all of a sudden it started to move, very, very smoothly and, of course, very, very slowly. It got to a position and

started to latch and something went wrong with the automatic software. The

ground was able to move it manually.”

The crew were awake once more at 04:44, April 16. The highlight of the day was the fourth and last EVA, which started at 10:29. Ross and Morin began by pivoting the Airlock Spur away from the S-0 ITS and connected it to Quest, giving future EVA astronauts an easy, direct route between the two. They tested micro-switches on the exterior of the S-0 ITS that would be used to confirm the attachment of later ITS segments and installed two 40-watt halogen lights on the exterior of Unity and Destiny. Next, they erected a work platform on the exterior of the station and installed the two S-0 ITS circuit breakers that had not been installed during EVA-1. Shock absorbers were attached to the MT, to prevent vibrations on the ITS during future EVAs from reaching the SSRMS. During the EVA, Ross joked, “Sure beats the dollar an hour I used to get for baling hay.” Struck by the view of Earth he exclaimed, “This is what I call a room with a view.” During the EVA they observed a thunderstorm over the Pacific Ocean and the Moon over the Atlantic Ocean.

The two men also returned to the bolt that Ross had not been able to disconnect on the MT umbilical guillotine, during the second EVA. They were still unable to remove the bolt, so the problem was left for a later EVA team to resolve. Finally, they tied down an insulation blanket that had come loose around a navigational antenna on the S-0 ITS. Plans to deploy a gas analyser were abandoned when the equipment proved faulty. The EVA ended at 17: 06, after 6 hours 37 minutes. While the EVA went ahead, Onufrienko, Bloomfield, Frick, and Smith continued to transfer equip­ment in both directions between Atlantis and ISS. The day ended at 20: 14, following the crew’s evening meal.

One of the final joint activities was to transfer the Arctic-1 refrigerator from Atlantis to ISS. It would be used to store samples awaiting return to Earth. With the new item installed and powered on, the Bio-Technology Refrigerator, which had been used for the same function until that point was powered off. Bloomfield led his crew back to Atlantis and sealed the hatches at 12: 04, April 17. Following pressure checks the orbiter was undocked from Destiny at 14: 31, and backed away. Frick flew Atlantis on a 1.25 circuit fly-around of ISS before firing her thrusters at 16: 15, when his spacecraft was directly above ISS, to complete the separation. The crew spent the remainder of the day preparing their spacecraft for the return to Earth.

The last full day of the flight began at 03: 44 April 18. The crew spent it preparing for re-entry. During the end-of-flight press conference they were given the opportu­nity to sum up their feelings. Bloomfield said, “We made our first step toward our commitment to our International Partners. Once work on the truss and arrays is finished we will actually have enough power that we can add two more laboratories.’’ Those two laboratories would be the European “Columbus” and the Japanese “Kibo” science modules.

Asked about his record-breaking ninth EVA, Ross answered, “I felt the same on this one as I did on the first one, totally enthralled. The spacewalks were incredible.’’

Smith took a question on his feelings when viewing Earth from space, but knowing that there were numerous wars being fought on the planet’s surface, he answered,

“Every time one of us looks out the window, we have really strong feelings about Earth. It looks very peaceful from up here and it really is very hard to believe that there is strife in different places on Earth. I think we are really good ambassadors, when we come back, about being good to the Earth and promoting peace.’’

Retrofire occurred at 11:20 April 19 and Frick flew Atlantis to a safe landing at KSC at 12: 27. Capcom at Houston told the crew, “That was a great landing and a great way to end a mission that has been superb in all respects.’’

After leaving Atlantis the crew were greeted by the new NASA Administrator, Sean O’Keefe. Bloomfield told the waiting crowd,

“We just got done with an incredible mission up to the International Space Station. We had an outstanding time while we were up there… It’s great to be back home. Please don’t forget those folks that are still up there on the International Space Station. Keep them in your thoughts and prayers.’’

Even as STS-110 prepared to return to Earth, Onufrienko, Bursch, and Walz were working hard to place ISS into hibernation mode. On April 20, they sealed themselves inside Soyuz TM-33 and undocked from Zarya’s nadir at 05: 02. Onufrienko then flew the spacecraft to a docking with Pirs’ nadir at 05: 35. On returning to ISS they reactivated the systems that they had turned off before the manoeuvre. The change of position had cleared Zarya’s nadir for the arrival of Soyuz TM-34, the new CRV due to replace Soyuz TM-33.

The last Soyuz TM spacecraft, Soyuz TM-34, was launched at 02: 26, April 25, 2002. Flight Commander Yuri Gidzenko was returning to ISS, having served as a member of the Expedition-1 crew. Interviewed before that flight, Gidzenko described the standard 2-day Soyuz flight as follows:

“OK, previously it took only one day from taking off ’til docking between the Soyuz vehicle and the space station. After that, our specialists decided to increase this period of time to two days. It’s maybe more comfortable for crew and more convenient for ground people to calculate our orbit and to calculate inputs so that we can dock. Then for two days, we are going to alter the orbit so that we gradually approach the station. After two days, in Orbit 32, we’ll begin the process of docking. We’ll still have a distant approach, then we approach the station, then we have the docking itself. As a rule this is all done automatically, on an automated mode; the astronauts or cosmonauts are monitoring the process, and if something does occur with the automatic docking, well then the crew gets involved and does it manually. Specifically I have two levers that would allow me to control the vehicle to do the approach and docking manually. Then following the docking we check the seal, equalizing pressure between the transport vehicle and the ISS. We open hatches. Then we start working on the station.’’

Roberto Vittori was a professional Italian astronaut and Mark Shuttleworth, who held joint South African and British citizenship, was the second paying visitor to the station. The launch of Soyuz TM-34 passed without incident and the spacecraft began a standard 2-day rendezvous, docking with Zarya’s nadir at 03: 56, April 26. Hatches between the two spacecraft were opened at 05: 25, and the Soyuz crew floated into Zarya for their safety briefing.

South African President Thabo Mbeki called to congratulate Shuttleworth, who he called “the first African citizen in space’’. The President told him, “The whole

continent is proud that at last we have one of our own people from Africa up in space… It’s a proud Freedom Day because of what you’ve done."

In reply, Shuttleworth described his launch in the following terms, “I had moments of terror, moments of sheer upliftment and exhilaration.’’ He also described ISS, “It’s amazingly roomy… Although it’s very, very large, we have to move very carefully. As you can see around us, there are tons of very precious and very sophisticated equipment. We hope that we will be good guests.’’ Of his home planet, Shuttleworth said, “I have truly never seen anything as beautiful as the Earth from space. I can’t imagine anything that could surpass that.’’

Following the farce and ill-will surrounding Denis Tito’s flight on Soyuz TM-32, NASA and RCS Energia had negotiated a set of rules governing the inclusion of Space Flight Participants (commercial passengers or “space tourists’’) in the other­wise empty third seat on Soyuz “taxi’’ flights to replace the Soyuz CRV attached to ISS. Although Shuttleworth would remain the responsibility of Gidzenko and Onufrienko whilst on the station, he was not required to be escorted while in the American ISS modules, as Tito had been. Shuttleworth had also negotiated the use of a NASA laptop computer to send e-mails from the station and some time on the NASA communications link to download audio and images. Like Tito, Shuttleworth had spent one year training in Korolev, and had even received 1-week training in Houston, which NASA had denied to Tito. Unlike his predecessor, Shuttleworth planned to perform experiments whilst on the station. When interviewed by CNN, Tito remarked that he was pleased that negotiations had formalised the position of Space Flight Participants and had allowed Shuttleworth to fly without the acrimony that had surrounded his own flight the previous year.

In orbit, Shuttleworth spent his time performing experiments in crystal growth, stem cell research, and AIDS research. He also spent long periods looking out of the windows at the magnificent view of Earth. During his stay on ISS he became a national hero in South Africa and also received considerable press coverage in Britain. He spoke with Nelson Mandela during a press conference and was embar­rassed when a 14-year-old South African schoolgirl asked him to marry her. The short-duration flight came to an end on May 6, when Gidzenko, Vittori, and Shuttleworth sealed themselves inside Soyuz TM-33 and undocked from Pirs at 20: 31. They landed in Kazakhstan at 23:51. Shuttleworth described his flight as “the most extraordinary experience”.

In 2003, it was announced that female Russian cosmonaut Nadezhda Kutelnaya had been named to the Soyuz TM-34 crew, but had been removed to make way for Shuttleworth who had paid $20 million for his flight. It turned out that Kutelnaya had previously been named in the original crew for Soyuz TM-32, but had also been removed on that occasion, to make way for the fee-paying Denis Tito.

Even as the Soyuz TM-33/Soyuz TM-34 exchange took place in orbit, RCS Energia remained in serious financial difficulty. The failure of the Russian govern­ment to pay the company millions of roubles that it was owed meant that Energia was unable to purchase the equipment required to finish manufacturing a number of Progress spacecraft then under construction. The funding problem particularly threatened the Progress vehicle due for launch in January 2003. Energia officials admitted that contingency plans were in place, in full co-operation with NASA, to end permanent occupation of ISS if the problems with funding persisted. The station would then be occupied by visiting crews on self-sufficient, short-duration Shuttle flights, as Skylab and the early Soviet Salyut stations had been. At the same time work on the Soyuz TMA-1 spacecraft, due to replace Soyuz TM-34 in October 2002, and others of its class, was also running behind schedule. If the new spacecraft were not available in time then permanent occupancy of ISS would have to be temporarily suspended.

While demanding that the Russians meet their contractual agreements the Amer­icans continued to move on with their own decision to stop developing ISS after it reached “Core Complete”. Few people now believed that they would ever see ISS reach the original “Assembly Complete” configuration. The on-going Russian budgetary difficulties only served to highlight the far-reaching implications of the American decision to cancel the development of the X-38 CRV and the failure to develop relatively inexpensive robotic cargo delivery vehicles. The combination of a new American President (George W. Bush) and a new Administrator (O’Keefe) at NASA, both of whom had vowed to rein in spending on ISS, meant that on this occasion NASA was far less likely to hurry to the Russians’ aid with an injection of much needed cash. The time had come for the Russian government to prove that they intended to live up to their contractual agreements and support ISS, or admit that they can no longer afford to do so due to pressing problems at home on Earth and withdraw from the programme. The latter would no doubt have seen the end of the Russian space programme for the foreseeable future and would have been a very sad day indeed.

In the wake of Shuttleworth’s successful flight, Energia announced that it was likely that Space Flight Participants would be included in most Soyuz taxi flight crews. The private flights, which cost $20 million each, including a very basic training regime in Korolev, were contracted through the American company Space Adven­tures. They were a major source of income for the Russians, allowing them to plough the money back into the Soyuz/Progress spacecraft needed to fulfil their contractual commitments to ISS. Lance Bass, a rock band vocalist, was originally in line for the space participant’s couch on the October 2002 Soyuz taxi flight, but failed to raise the $20 million to pay for his flight. The Russians removed him from the flight roster.

At the same time, NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe announced that NASA would select an Educator Astronaut, a teacher, in each subsequent group of new astronauts selected after 2003. Unlike Christa McAuliffe, who was a passenger on STS-51L, the Educator Astronauts would be professional astronauts, serving as Mission Specialists, with the years of training that that would involve before they made their first flight into orbit. The first Educator Astronaut to be selected was Barbara Morgan, Christa McAuliffe’s back-up in 1986. The Educator Astronauts would be used to encourage students to study mathematics, engineering, and spaceflight-related science subjects.

Following the departure of Soyuz TM-34 Onufrienko and the Expedition-4 crew had 1.5 days of free time before splitting their time between long-running experiments and preparing to come home. During the second week of May, Onufrienko repaired the Elektron oxygen generator, which had been malfunctioning again and had been off-line. From Korolev, Valeri Lyndin assured the media, “There is enough oxygen in the station, so there is nothing terrible about this. There is enough oxygen to last three or more months.’’ He continued, “Elektron was working on the ISS, taking oxygen from water, but there are other mechanisms, and they are getting oxygen with the help of these systems now… The system is automated, so you can command it from Earth or from the computers onboard. We are taking the appropriate measures.’’ In the last days of their stay, Onufrienko’s crew performed their final experiments.

STS-111 DELIVERS EXPEDITION-5 AND REPAIRS THE SSRMS

STS-111 would take the Expedition-5 crew, Valeri Korzun, Sergei Treschev, and Peggy Whitson, up to ISS and return the Expedition-4 crew, Yuri Onufrienko, Daniel Bursch, Carl Walz, to Earth. It also carried the MPLM Leonardo, with experiment racks and three stowage and re-supply racks for Destiny. The flight would deliver the Mobile Base System (MBS) which, when mounted on the MT, would complete the Canadian Mobile Servicing System (MSS). When the assembly of the MBS was complete the SSRMS would be moved end over end, from its position on the exterior of Destiny, to mount itself on the MBS. Once in place, the MBS would be able to run along rails on the ram face of the ITS. This combination offered new mobility that would be used extensively in the remainder of the ISS construction programme, as well as in support of numerous EVAs and experiments. There would be three EVAs during the flight of STS-111, two in support of the MBS, and one to replace a faulty wrist joint on the SSRMS. The latter repair had resulted in a 1-month launch delay, while the crew learnt the new repair procedures.

The flight was due to be launched at 19:22, May 30, 2002, but on May 28 a problem was found in one of Endeavour’s Auxiliary Power Units (APUs). It was repaired on the launch pad, without delaying the launch. On May 30, the launch attempt was cancelled at 19 : 21, due to the fact that there were thunderstorms within the area around the Kennedy Space Centre.

The launch was rescheduled for 24 hours later, with the countdown resuming at T — 11 hours and propellant loading commencing at 10: 00. However, at the Tanking Meeting, prior to commencing propellant loading, mission managers decided that there was little chance of the weather improving in time for the day’s launch. This time the launch was re-set for June 4, and the Rotating Service Structure was moved back around the Shuttle on the launch pad, to protect it from the weather. On June 2, the launch was moved back a further 24 hours, to June 5, due to work on a malfunctioning gaseous nitrogen pressure regulator in Endeavour’s left-hand Orbital Attitude and Manoeuvring System (OAMS) pod. The regulator had malfunctioned earlier in the countdown and the decision had been taken to change it.

As the new countdown reached its final stages, Launch Director Mike Leinbach told Cockrell, “Sorry we had to keep you here an extra 6 days. Good luck, have a good flight.’’ Cockrell replied, “We’ll do a good job for you.’’

STS-111 finally lifted off at 17: 23, June 5, 2002, while ISS was west of Perth, Australia. At launch Frank Culbertson, who had been Commander of the Expedi­tion-3 crew, and who was working the Capcom’s position in Houston, informed the Expedition-4 crew, “It’s on the way. I know you will be happy to hear that.’’ After 182 days in space Bursch yelled, “All right!’’ Walz was more reserved saying, “Good. We look forward to seeing you.’’

Following a perfect launch, Endeavour entered the correct orbit and was con­figured for orbital flight. As Endeavour left Earth, Chang-Diaz equalled Jerry Ross’ record set on STS-110, becoming the second person to fly in space seven times. Asked about his new record in a pre-flight interview he had replied, “I’m hoping that these kinds of records will be easily broken and many times over. And I’m hoping that there will be many, many people who will fly not 7 or 8 times, but 10, 15 times.’’ The crew’s day ended just 3 hours after launch when they settled down to their first night in space.

June 6 was spent doing all of the routine things that a Shuttle crew does during their first full day in space. While Cockrell and Lockhart concentrated on the rendezvous, Perrin and Chang-Diaz fitted the centreline camera and deployed the docking ring. They also checked out the EMUs that they would wear during their three EVAs. On ISS, Onufrienko, Walz, and Bursch prepared the station for the arrival of the Expedition-5 crew and the visitors that would deliver them.

Day 3, June 7, began at 05: 30. Endeavour followed a standard rendezvous path. During the final approach Dan Bursch had remarked, “It’s a great day, a great day.’’ He then rang the Station’s bell to mark Endeavour’s arrival. Soft-docking, on Destiny’s ram, occurred at 12:25. After waiting 1 hour for oscillations to damp down, hard-docking took place at 13: 27. Following pressure checks the hatches between the two spacecraft were opened at 14: 08, and the Shuttle and Expedi­tion-5 crews entered Destiny, where the Expedition-4 crew greeted them. One of the Expedition-4 crew noted that the Expedition-5 crew consisted of older individuals and told Cockrell, “We are so glad that you brought our fathers to the International Space Station.’’ Turning to the newcomers he added, “We wish you good luck. Have a good time.’’

Before launch Korzun had described his views on the Expedition crew hand-over:

“What is [the] purpose of the hand-over? We have [a] special book; we will use this book and there is each system described in this book, and there are some empty space[s] which we need to use to write changes between [the] condition of systems which we study on the ground and [the] real condition of this system onboard Station. And maybe… we will study real situation with stowage of the equipment in station… [W]e need to have some times to adapt, maybe first time, I can [watch] Yuri’s activity or Peggy will see Carl’s activity or, Sergei will follow Dan’s example… [N]ow we needn’t use a lot of time for hand-over because each Shuttle crew bring down some video and, we have [the] opportunity to watch video that crew made in space [to] show us [the] situation. And sometimes I think this is a good idea… to watch video and to recognize [the] configuration inside of the module. [It is] very important for us to use INV—this is Inventory Management System.’’

Following a safety brief, the ten astronauts began transferring equipment and experimental results between the two spacecraft. The Expedition-4 crew removed their couch liners from Soyuz TM-34 and stored them in Endeavour, while the Expedition-5 crew installed their own couch liners in the Soyuz and then checked their Russian Sokol pressure suits. Perrin and Chang-Diaz checked the communica­tion link between their EVA suits and the Quest Airlock. With the latter task completed, they officially took up residence on ISS at 18: 55. At the same time Onufrienko, Bursch, and Walz completed their 182-day stay on ISS and became part

of Endeavour’s crew. The day ended with the failure of the Flash Evaporator System Primary controller. It was one of three such controllers and had no effect on the station’s operations. An investigation was begun in Houston.

On June 8, the two Expedition crews continued their hand-over. Onboard Endeavour, Cockrell used the RMS to un-berth Leonardo from the payload bay and dock it to Unity’s nadir, at 10:28. Following pressure checks the hatches between Leonardo and Unity were opened at 17:30. All ten astronauts entered the MPLM and began unloading the logistics and equipment that the Expedition-5 crew would use during their stay on ISS. Early in the day the crew reported, “We’re hearing a pretty loud audible noise, kind of a growling noise.’’ At the same time, one of the station’s four CMGs mounted in the Z-1 Truss seized. It was commanded to spin down (lose speed) and was then shut down. An investigation began, but the remain­ing three CMGs and a number of alternative systems for controlling the ISS’s attitude meant that the failure had no immediate effect on the mission. Flight director Paul Hill told a press conference, “Big picture wise, losing a CMG is a big deal. From a risk perspective right now, we’re in good shape. But this is a major component that’s failed and we’re going to do the best we can to get the next CMG ready to fly.’’ There was a spare CMG in storage in America, but the full Shuttle manifest meant that it could not be launched before 2003.

As the day continued Perrin and Chang-Diaz checked out their EMUs, as well as the tools and procedures for their first EVA, which would take place the following day. During a briefing from the ground the astronauts were updated on the attempt by Lance Bass to purchase a Space Flight Participant’s position on the up-coming October Soyuz taxi flight to ISS. Expedition-5 crew Commander Valeri Korzun replied, “We would be happy to see one of the Supermodels.’’ He added, “But this is a joke and we will be very happy to receive any space tourist. They’re very welcome here… Probably someone with certain professional qualities would be better. But it would not make any difference to our greetings.’’ That was still a very Russian point of view. On the subject of his own flight Korzun was equally positive saying, “Physically and psychologically, we are prepared to fly at least a year and a half.’’

Regarding the CMG failure, during the day Flight Director Rick LaBrode explained:

“All indications at this point do appear to be a mechanical failure. We saw increases in vibration. We saw increases in bearing temperatures, increased currents and decrease in speed. It looks obviously like a bearing seized.’’

Perrin and Chang-Diaz left the Quest airlock at 11: 27, June 9, at the beginning of a 7-hour 14-minute EVA. Lockhart choreographed the EVA from Endeavour’s aft flight deck, while Korzun and Whitson operated the SSRMS. Throughout the EVA Cockrell used the cameras mounted on Endeavour’s RMS to view the astronauts’ activities. Korzun described the EVA tasks in his pre-launch interview:

“[Everybody on our crew has personal tasks during this activity. I will support [the] EVA crewmember on the Shuttle who is [riding the] robot arm during EVA 1, and Peggy will grapple [the] MBS and translate [the] MBS and connect [the] MBS to the MT, and… Sergei will check [the] station systems during this activity and help us with [a] video view during MBS installation… I need to transfer Franklin from [the] Airlock to [the] cargo bay of the Shuttle; he will ungrapple [a] spare PDGF and then I will translate him to the P-6 … He will install this PDGF and then move back to the cargo bay, and unfasten pack of MMOD shield—this is special protection for the Service Module [Zvezda]. And then I will transfer him, with MMOD shield, to the PMA-1. They will, Franklin and Philippe will temporary stowage of this MMOD shield, and [then], during our EVA, we will take this MMOD shield and we will transfer it to the Service Module, and we will install this MMOD shield around the corner of Service Module. They will protect Service Module from meteors during flight.”

The first task was to install a PDGA on the P-6 ITS. The PDGA would be used to move the P-6 from its position on the Z-1 Truss to its final location, on the end of the Port ITS, during the flight of STS-119. That move would be one of the final actions in the construction of the ISS “Core Complete” configuration. Chang-Diaz mounted a foot restraint in the end of the SSRMS and climbed on to it. He collected six thermal shields from their storage place within Endeavour’s payload bay and was then moved alongside PMA-1, between Unity and Zarya. Perrin made his own way to the same location and helped Chang-Diaz to attach the thermal shields temporarily to PMA-1. In an EVA planned for July, Korzun and Whitson would install the shields in their final location, on the exterior of Zvezda, where they would provide additional micrometeoroid protection, bringing the module up to American standards in that capacity.

Admiring the view from their unique location, Chang-Diaz exclaimed, “This is an amazing experience, I tell you.’’

Frenchman Perrin agreed, “Unbelievable.”

Chang Diaz then conducted a visual and photographic inspection of the failed CMG in the Z-1 Truss, a task added to the EVA only a few days earlier. Their final tasks called for the removal of the thermal blankets covering the Mobile Base System (MBS). With the blankets removed Cockrell released the latches that held the MBS securely in Endeavour’s payload bay. Whitson and Walz then grabbed the MBS with the SSRMS and lifted it to a position 1 metre above the MT, on the S-0 ITS. The SSRMS was then powered off, leaving the MBS to become thermally conditioned. Perrin and Chang-Diaz returned to the airlock and the EVA ended at 18:41.

Onufrienko had intended to carry out a short official hand-over ceremony during the day, but a smoke alarm in one of the Russian modules caused that ceremony to be abandoned. After inspecting the relevant module Onufrienko reported, “Everything is OK. Everything is under control. It was a false alarm. Too much dust; that is probably what triggered it.’’

At 09:30, June 10, Whitson and Walz used the SSRMS to transfer the MBS up to the MT. Controllers in Houston then ordered the latches to close, securing the MBS in place. In the future the SSRMS would be walked end over end until it could attach itself to the MBS. In that position it would be possible to ride the MT up and down the track mounted on the ITS. In that way the SSRMS would be able to assist in attaching future ITS elements to the truss. During the afternoon, Onufrienko’s crew held a ceremony to pass command of ISS to Korzun’s crew. Following the hand-over ceremony, Endeavour’s thrusters were used to raise the station’s orbit.

Chang-Diaz and Perrin commenced their second EVA at 11:20, June 11. Lockhart acted as Intravehicular Officer, guiding them through the items in the flight plan. Their first task was to connect a dozen primary and back-up power, data, and video cables to the MBS and the primary power cable between the MBS and the MT. With the latter task completed Houston sent commands to the MT to plug its umbilicals into the S-0 ITS. The two EVA astronauts then connected the Payload Orbital Replacement Unit Accommodation (POA) on the MBS. This was a copy of the end-effector on either end of the SSRMS and would be used in the future to hold cargo while the MT traversed the ITS. Next, they secured four bolts between the MBS and the MT, thereby completing the installation of the MBS. The penultimate task was to move a TV camera to its final position on the MBS, where it would be used to view future assembly work. Finally, the two men added an electrical extension cable to the MBS and photographed all of the connections that they had made. The EVA had been planned to last 6.5 hours but ended at 16: 20, after only 5 hours. In Houston, Canadian astronaut Bob Thirsk told them, “We consider it a wrap. Your professionalism and skill really showed through.’’

Inside ISS, work continued on the Expedition crew hand-over and the transfer of supplies. With Leonardo already unloaded the crews spent much of the day loading equipment and results from the Expedition-4 crew’s experiments into the MPLM for return to Earth. At 22: 19, Walz and Bursch set a new American endurance record, exceeding Shannon Lucid’s 188 consecutive days spent in space.

At 02: 55, June 12, Walz also surpassed Lucid’s overall record of 223 days in space accrued over numerous flights. The day was spent loading Leonardo and continuing the hand-over of the Expedition crews. Chang-Diaz and Perrin also went over plans for their third EVA, planned for the following day. During the afternoon Endeavour performed a second re-boost manoeuvre. The astronauts also down­linked their pictures of forest fires burning in Colorado.

Chang-Diaz and Perrin left the Quest airlock for the third time at 11: 16, June 13. Lockhart controlled the EVA while Cockrell operated Endeavour’s RMS, to allow its cameras to return pictures of the astronauts’ activities. Their task for the day was to change out the primary wrist roll joint in the SSRMS, which had malfunctioned in March 2002. Since that time all SSRMS functions had been performed using the back-up wrist mechanism. Bill Gerstenmaier, Space Station programme deputy manager had described the SSRMS at a STS-111 launch day press conference, saying, “Without the arm, we could not continue to build the station. So the arm needs to be there, and needs to be functioning.’’

The repair began with the removal of the Latch End Effector (LEE) which was secured to an EVA handrail on the exterior of Destiny. This exposed the wrist joint that required replacement. The two astronauts disconnected six bolts holding the wrist roll joint in place and a seventh bolt holding power, data, and video umbilicals, before Perrin removed the joint and carried it down to its stowage position in Endeavour’s payload bay. He then released the six bolts holding the new joint in place in the payload bay and carried it back up to where Chang-Diaz was waiting. Having positioned the joint the two men tightened the six securing bolts and the umbilical bolt, before recovering and replacing the LEE. While Chang-Diaz and Perrin moved the old joint to its final position for its return to Earth, power was applied to the SSRMS so that Bursch and Korzun could run it through as series of test manoeuvres. The SSRMS was returned to full operation at 16:43. Having collected and stored their tools the two astronauts returned to Quest, and the EVA ended at 18: 33, after 7 hours 17 minutes. Throughout the EVA Whitson and Treschev had continued to transfer items from ISS to Endeavour and Leonardo. In the evening an unsuccessful attempt was made to apply electrical power from the MBS to the SSRMS. Initial investigation suggested that a software glitch had prevented the commands travelling between the two units.

The highlight of June 14 was the closing and removal of Leonardo from Unity’s nadir. Just after 12:00 Perrin used Endeavour’s RMS to manoeuvre the MPLM back into the Shuttle’s payload bay, where it was secured at 16: 11. Cockrell then per­formed a third re-boost manoeuvre using Endeavour’s thrusters. Back on ISS all ten astronauts brought their group activities to a close.

June 15 began with final farewells and the withdrawal of the STS-111 crew to Endeavour before the sealing of the hatches between the two vehicles at 08: 23. Following pressure checks, Endeavour undocked at 10: 32, and moved clear of Destiny’s ram under Lockhart’s control. Onboard ISS, Whitson rang the ship’s bell and announced, “Expedition-4 departing, Endeavour departing.’’ This Naval tradition, initiated by Shepherd, commander of the Expedition-1 crew, had become standard practice on the station whenever spacecraft arrived or departed. Onufrienko, Walz, and Bursch had spent 181 days on the station. Once clear of ISS, Endeavour made 1.25 circuits of the station while the crew exposed video and photographs. Finally, Lockhart manoeuvred the Shuttle away from the station and the crew enjoyed some free time. On ISS, the Expedition-5 crew began their sleep period at 16: 00, adjusting their daily routine to begin at 02: 00, June 26. When they awoke they began the task of unpacking and stowing the items Endeavour had brought to the station.

Preparations for re-entry filled the whole of June 16. Plans to return to Earth were cancelled on both June 17 and 18, when controllers in Houston instructed the Shuttle’s crew to back out of preparation for re-entry due to rain and thunderstorms in the region of the Kennedy Space Centre. In the meantime, Edwards Air Force Base, in California, was activated as a back-up landing site. Following a third wave – off to Florida, Endeavour finally returned to Edwards, landing on the dry lakebed at 13: 58. The Shuttle flight had lasted 7 days 2 hours 26 minutes. Onufrienko, Walz, and Bursch had completed 196 days in space. In the weeks that followed they underwent the full range of medical and re-acclimatisation studies that previous long-duration space station crews had undergone before them. They were all found to be in good health.

By this time the favoured theory for the cause of the loss of STS-107 was that the left-hand bipod ramp, a piece of shaped insulation foam the size of a suitcase, had separated from the ET at T + 81.7 seconds after launch, it struck the left wing of Columbia 0.2 seconds later, striking the leading edge of the wing in the area of Carbon-Carbon Panels 8 and 9.

On July 7, CAIB representatives watched as a gas-powered cannon was used to fire a similar piece of insulation foam at a mock-up of the leading edge of the orbiter’s left wing, including all of the relevant carbon-carbon panels. The test was designed so that the foam would strike Panels 8 and 9 at an angle of 22° and travelling at 237 cm per second, as a true representation of the impact event seen in the STS-107 launch day film.

The test resulted in impact forces that were more than 50% above those the carbon-carbon panels were designed to survive and produced a hole 40.5 cm by 43 cm in the underside of Panel 8. The remainder of the panel was severely cracked. Damage to the T-seal lug (the T-seal linked Panel 8 to the neighbouring panel) was similar to that found on Columbia’s recovered T-seal lug. The foam test subject disintegrated on impact. Two pieces of the carbon-carbon panel were found inside the U-shaped panel and observers suggested that this was similar to the object picked up by radar drifting away from Columbia one day after launch. Investigators deduced that such a large hole would have led to an earlier break-up of Columbia during re-entry and therefore arrived at a hole approximately 25 cm square for the STS-107 damage. In August, the recovered Columbia debris was crated and stored on Level 16 of the VAB.

During their 11th week of Expedition-7’s occupation, Lu installed the EarthKam camera on the Earth-facing window in Destiny for use during the new school term. Malenchenko repaired the Satellite Navigation System in the Russian segment of the station. He also replaced pipe conduits in the condensate separation and pumping unit using items delivered by Progress M1-10. Working together, Malenchenko and Lu upgraded a relay unit in the Russian audio system, and inspected the life support system, smoke detectors, and microbe filters throughout the station. They also re­built laptop computer hard drives and carried out an audit to assist programme managers to decide what to launch on future Progress flights. Despite this workload they also managed to participate in Russian medical experiments on their own bodies and to talk to a number of amateur radio hams as they passed around the planet.

The week ending July 18 included Lu imaging Hurricane Claudette as it approached the Texas coast. Houston had made preparations in case the hurricane threatened their location, but it did not. Lu installed and checked out the Coarsening of Solid-Liquid Mixtures (CSLM) experiment in the MSG. He also swapped soft­ware from the six Station Support Computers (SSCs) to next-generation laptops. Together, the two men inspected the windows in Zvezda and Pirs and down-linked digital images of them to Korolev. Lu attempted to repair the cooling loop in his EMU, but was unsuccessful.

On July 21, both men participated in medical experiments before working on an

inventory of Russian items in the station. The following day saw more medical experiments and a test of a new Russian satellite navigation antenna. July 23 was occupied with descent procedures training in Soyuz TMA-2 and conditioning the batteries in their EMUs, a process that took all week. During the following day, Malenchenko continued with the Russian medical experiments while Lu prepared for a ground-based test of the SSRMS. The test, which took place on July 25, involved ground-based control of SSRMS activities. Lu was required to complete station – based activities that could not be controlled from the ground.

NASA officially announced the Expedition-8 crew on July 25. Michael Foale would be Commander, with Alexander Kaleri as Flight Engineer. Spanish ESA astronaut Pedro Duque would fly a short mission to the station, under contract to the Russians, performing experiments before returning to Earth in Soyuz TMA-2 with the Expedition-7 crew. Soyuz TMA-3 would be launched on October 18, 2003, with Foale and Kaleri spending almost 200 days on ISS.

The Expedition-7 crew marked the 1,000th day of continuous occupation of ISS on July 29. They down-linked a message and received calls from the heads of the 16 national space agencies involved in the programme. At a meeting held in Monterey, Canada, NASA representatives thanked the heads of all ISS International Partner agencies for their continued support of ISS. Jean-Jacques Dordain, Director of ESA, said that “The Columbia tragedy is not just NASA’s tragedy—it’s our tragedy.” Particular thanks went to the Russians, whose capabilities had allowed ISS to remain occupied and re-stocked throughout the period following the loss of STS-107 and the suspension of Shuttle flights. Yuri Koptev, director of the RSA, took the opportunity to talk about the additional financial burden placed on his cash-strapped Agency but admitted, “Sometimes a partner has to take more responsibility… When such big projects are involved, there is no other way to do it.’’

Partners were informed of the preliminary findings of the CAIB and agreed to continue following the ISS Programme Action Plan, adopted in 2002, as the basis of ISS operations. The Plan would be up-dated in October to include operations by the ESA-operated ATV.

On ISS, Malenchenko spent the week working on Russian medical experiments. He also operated the Russian/German Plasma Crystal-3 (PK-3), which examined particles in an evacuated chamber that have been excited by radio frequencies. Lu continued to work with the CSLM experiment in the MSG. He also performed a function test of the Biotechnology Specimen Temperature Controller, part of a fluid dynamics experiment to be used later in the flight. Regular maintenance also occupied a large portion of their time, as did their daily exercise regime.

On August 4 the crew reached their 100th day in space. The following day ISS shifted into “survival mode’’, when the onboard computers failed to recognise the thermal system loops in the Russian sector of the station. Non-essential items were automatically powered off before controllers on the ground began working with the crew to bring everything back on-line. The event had no major impact on operations, or the science programme.

On August 6, Fred Gregory, NASA’s Deputy Administrator, spoke to the media at KSC regarding the CAIB Final Report, which was due to be released later in the month. He told journalists, “My assumption is we will follow to the letter the recommendations. There will be no attempt, whatsoever, to argue or defend recommendations from the Columbia Accident Investigation Board.”

During the week on ISS, Malenchenko continued to work on Russian medical and agricultural experiments, while Lu ran the second series of CSLM experiments (CSLM-2) in the MSG. The two astronauts worked together to re-size the spare EMU in Quest so that it fitted Lu. The cooling loop in the suit originally failed but then began working. Engineers in Houston added the second EMU to their workload in an attempt to establish what had happened. Troubleshooting the two malfunction­ing EMUs continued into the following week, when the two men inspected valves and filters in the coolant water loop.

Malenchenko married Eketrina Dimitriev, a US citizen of Russian birth, on August 10. For the ceremony he wore a tuxedo and bow tie sent up to him on Progress M1-10. The ceremony was carried out over a secure radio link between a room in MCC-Houston that had been decked out to look like a wedding chapel, where Dimitriev was located. Malenchenko and Lu were on ISS, but were shown on a large video screen in the room where the legal ceremony was taking place. Lu served as best man, he also played the Wedding March on a portable keyboard that he had with him on ISS, while Dimitriev walked down the aisle. Both individuals had to place their new wedding rings on their own fingers. Operations on the station were not interrupted as it was a Sunday and therefore a rest day for the crew. The couple had planned their wedding in August, before Malenchenko was assigned to the 6-month Expedition-7 crew on ISS. Texas law allowed the wedding to take place with the groom absent provided there was a sufficiently good reason. Malenchenko had written to his lawyer in Texas and explained the situation. The letter resulted in the marriage licence being granted. Russian officials then forbade the wedding taking place during Malenchenko’s time on ISS, stating that Russian government equipment was not available for such private use. Following the wedding, NASA made no comment, but Russian space officials were at pains to point out that, as a member of the Russian military, Malenchenko had to have written authority to marry a foreign national. They stated that he could face criminal charges for holding the wedding ceremony without official permission, but it was made clear that such charges would probably not be brought against the cosmonaut.

In Houston, Michael Foale and Alexander Kaleri, the ISS Expedition-8 crew, talked to the media when they arrived for continued training with equipment that they would use during their occupation of the station. Asked about comments that the station should be abandoned until the Shuttle was flying again Foale said, “For us to not step up and not continue in space on the International Space Station is, for me, not really an option. We need to show perseverance in our goals and dreams by maintaining a human presence in space.’’ Ignoring the fact that American politicians and journalist were suggesting that Russian equipment and the Russian infrastruc­ture were incapable of sustaining a human presence on ISS, Kaleri replied, “If we are able to maintain manned flight on board… we must do it. That is why the station is up there.’’

On ISS life went on. A continuation from the previous week was the use of oxygen in the Progress M-47, docked to Zvezda’s wake, and Progress M1-10, docked to Pirs, to repressurise the station. The oxygen was used in this manner to refresh the oxygen in the station before the two Progress vehicles were undocked, prior to their re-entry and destruction. Lu removed the CSLM from the MSG and replaced it with the Pore Formation and Mobility Investigation (PFMI) experiment. The PFMI experiment involved the melting of plastic samples to study the formation of bubbles that might weaken metals, crystals, and other materials at high temperatures. Plans to begin working with the experiment had to be delayed until the following week when Lu could not locate a cable. Ultimately, Lu spoke to Don Pettit, whose suggestions allowed him to locate the cable. Work with the new experiment’s first sample began on August 20, and was concluded two days later. Both men continued to perform medical experiments for their respective nations and both also worked on filling Progress M-47 with rubbish, as its oxygen supply approached depletion.

During the week ending August 29, Lu ran the PFMI experiment on a second sample. Two more samples would be processed in the following week and three more in the week after that. He also activated the Commercial Bio-processing Apparatus for use in future biology experiments. Lu also installed a new laptop computer to control the repaired SAMS vibration measurement equipment. Russian mission managers reported that the charge/discharge unit on Zvezda’s Battery 2 had been declared failed, and would need replacing. The module continued to function normally on seven batteries.

Progress M-47 undocked from Zvezda’s wake at 18: 48, August 27, as ISS was flying over China. It re-entered and burned up later the same day. The undocking cleared the way for the arrival of Progress M-48 later in the month.

Even in the wake of the loss of STS-107, the Russians announced that they intended to launch a Soyuz TMA flight to ISS with two spaceflight participants and a single Russian cosmonaut acting as Soyuz Commander. The Russians announced that they hoped to raise up to 50% of its annual spaceflight revenue from spaceflight participants flying for a fee of $20 million each. However, no Soyuz flight with two spaceflight participants had taken place up to the close of this manuscript (February 2008).

Progress M-53 was launched from Baikonur at 19:09, June 16, 2005. Ten minutes later the Expedition-11 crew were informed of its successful launch. Following a routine 2-day rendezvous the KURS automatic system failed when a Russian ground station malfunctioned and prevented data being up-linked to the Progress. Krikalev had to use the TORU flight station in Zvezda to manually dock the new Progress to Zarya’s wake, at 20:42, June 18. The crew equalised the pressure between the two vehicles and opened the connecting hatches just hours after the docking, but did not begin unloading until the following day.

In the week following the new arrival, Krikalev and Phillips spent much of their time unloading the new supplies and preparing for the launch of STS-114 in July. Krikalev installed the newly delivered electrolyte and filters in the Elektron and powered the oxygen generator on. It failed almost immediately. After a second activation the Elektron operated for almost 30 minutes before shutting down. PMA-3 was pressurised and opened for the first time in four years before being utilised as storage space. The crew also cycled the docking system on Destiny’s nadir, in preparation for the docking of the MPLM that STS-114 would carry to ISS. The system had not been cycled in 2.5 years.

On June 30, NASA Shuttle programme managers set an official launch date of July 13, for the STS-114 Return to Flight mission. Discovery’s lift-off was set for 15: 51, with docking to ISS at 12: 27, July 15. For the first time in the Shuttle programme, Atlantis would be ready to launch a rescue mission if required during the duration of the STS-114 flight. This was one result of the “if it is damaged there’s nothing we can do to help the crew’’ attitude shown by some programme managers during STS-107, which had been heavily criticised by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board.

In preparation for that launch, Phillips installed a camera used to align the MPLM correctly for docking with Destiny. The ISS crew also trained with the SSRMS, which would be used for the first time to lift an MPLM out of the payload bay. During the session they commanded the SSRMS to “walk” from Destiny’s operating base and install itself on the MBS mounted on the ITS on June 29, and back to Destiny’s operating base on June 30. The manoeuvre would be used to allow the SSRMS’ camera to observe heatshield tiles on Discovery one day after docking. The MPLM transfer manoeuvres would all be carried out with the SSRMS on Destiny’s operating base. Krikalev also tested radio guidance equipment intended for use with the European ATV. On June 30 the engines on Progress M-53 were used to adjust the station’s orbit in preparation for Discovery’s arrival. Oxygen in the Progress tanks was used to repressurise ISS, allowing the crew to stop burning SFOG candles. Both men continued to operate experiments from their respective countries.

The following week both men collected items to be returned to Earth in Dis­covery’s MPLM once the new stores had been removed from it. Phillips conducted the routine charging and discharging cycle on the batteries in the American EMUs held in Quest, in preparation for the three EVAs planned during the visit of STS-114. On June 5, Progress M-53 was employed in another orbit-raising manoeuvre, while

Krikalev continued to oversee the use of oxygen and the transfer of water from the tanks in Progress M-53. Both men also continued their experiment programmes, including their second of three sessions with the Renal Stone Experiment. Through­out the week they photographed Tropical Storm Denis. In the second week of July they continued to prepare items for return to Earth with Discovery, while continuing their experiment and personal exercise programmes.

Russia, or at least the Soviet Union, placed the first cosmonaut into space in April 1961, and has maintained a human spaceflight programme and cosmonaut group since that time. While NASA’s space programme is civil in nature, with considerable assistance from the US military, Russia’s space programme has been run by the military from the beginning.

Vostok was a one-man spacecraft, which introduced Russian cosmonauts to spaceflight. After six flights the propaganda requirements of Nikita Khrushchev dictated that Vostok was stripped out in order to allow it to carry three cosmonauts, and then to take two cosmonauts and an extendable airlock to allow for the first EVA before the Americans flew the first two-man crew and attempted an EVA in Project Gemini. The refitted Vostok spacecraft was called Voskhod to give the impression that it was an entirely new design. Vostok/Voskhod was replaced by Soyuz, a space­craft designed to support an Earth orbital programme, or a human lunar landing programme, launched by the N-1. All of these programmes were developed by OBK-1, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev’s design bureau.

The earliest years of the Soviet human space programme were highlighted by a series of politically driven propaganda events, the first man in space, the first woman, the first three-man crew, the first EVA, and then it all went wrong. When the Soviet Premier changed in October 1964 and Korolev, the man in charge of the Soviet space programme, died on the operating table in January 1966, everything changed. The new premier, Leonid Brezhnev, had less interest in the space programme and Korolev’s replacement Vasili Mishin was not up to the job, faced as he was with racing America to the Moon, having started several years behind the Americans.

Meanwhile, a second design bureau, led by Valentin Chelomei, had designed the Proton launch vehicle and OKB-1 had designed the Soyuz-derived Zond to be launched on a Proton and carry a single cosmonaut on a high orbit that would pass around the far side of the Moon and fall straight back to Earth. When Apollo won the Moon race Russia cancelled both of its human circumlunar and lunar landing programmes.

Chelomei had begun a space station project in the mid-1960s, consisting of a crew/cargo ferry designated TKS and a station element designated OPS Almaz (despite this distinction, large Russian space station size modules based on the OPS Almaz element of this vehicle have generally come to be identified as “TKS modules’’ and this is the way in which the designation is used in this book). In December 1969, a decision had been made to have OKB-1 modify the OPS Almaz to operate with the Soyuz, and to serve as a scientific station rather than as a military reconnaissance platform. The scientific version of the Almaz station was originally called Zarya. Ultimately, both Almaz (military) and Zarya (scientific) versions of the station later flew under the cover name Salyut.

The first seven Salyut stations (two malfunctioned before they were occupied) supported a single Soyuz spacecraft, with their crews performing a series of record­breaking long-duration flights, but the stations were left unoccupied between crew visits, just as the American Skylab prototype space station would be. Salyut-6 introduced two docking ports, one at each end of the station’s long axis. This allowed two Soyuz spacecraft to dock at the same time, leading to permanent occupancy and crew relief on-orbit. When crew occupations surpassed the 6-month guaranteed life of a Soyuz spacecraft the Soviets introduced 10-day Soyuz taxi flights, where two-man crews delivered a new spacecraft to the station and returned to Earth in the old one. Salyut-6 also saw the introduction of the Progress delivery vehicle carrying dry cargo in a pressurised compartment as well as liquid water and rocket propellant. Once the new cargo had been transferred to the station the pressurised compartment in the Progress was filled with rubbish and the spacecraft was undocked and commanded to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere, where it was heated to destruction. Salyut-7 also received several TKS modules, each of which completed an automated rendezvous and docking, a precursor to the construction methods used to build the next gen­eration of Soviet space stations. Indeed, in Salyut-6 and Salyut-7 the Soviets had rehearsed everything required for their third generation of space stations.

The Mir base block, launched in 1986, was the beginning of a new space station. The docking system at the module’s wake received Soyuz spacecraft, but also included the plumbing to support the liquid cargo deliveries from Progress spacecraft. At the module’s ram, the spherical node contained five docking systems. The one at the module’s ram was used for Soyuz spacecraft. When there were no Soyuz space­craft docked, the system was also used to dock automated TKS-style modules, which were then moved to the radial ports and were accessed by the crew internally, from the node. When Communism collapsed in the Soviet Union, only two of the four Mir science modules had been launched. The remaining modules were only launched after they were fitted out using American money.

After the Russians had signed up to ISS, Mir became the location for a co­operative programme with the Americans, allowing their astronauts to gain long – duration flight experience. Prior to this, Mir had been hosting European astronauts, ESA having grown frustrated by the delays in creating an American-led station. This Shuttle-Mir programme was designated Phase 1 of the ISS programme. By the time the first ISS module was launched the Russians already had nearly 30 years of space station, long-duration flight experience.

The Russians have provided three major ISS modules:

• Zarya was built by the Russians under contract to Boeing, NASA’s primary ISS contractor. The module provided attitude control until later American modules were docked to it, after which it became a storage area. Zarya was designated as an American module, although it is now seen as part of the Russian sector of ISS.

• Zvezda was originally an all-Russian module, but lack of funding from the Russian government meant that it was only completed, two years late, after an injection of NASA’s cash. Basically similar to the Mir base block, and the Salyut stations that had preceded it, Zvezda was the control centre of the Russian sector of ISS, and the social centre of the station, as it contains the food prep­aration area and a galley table, as well as a waste management facility (toilet). Zvezda allowed the permanent occupation of ISS from the earliest days of its activation. Under the original plans for Space Station Freedom the station would not have been permanently occupied until the very last module was in place. Zvezda re-wrote the flight plan, but only with help from the other two vital elements in the Salyut/Mir programme!

• Soyuz was Russia’s human-carrying spacecraft. As such, it could deliver crews to ISS, docking to the Russian modules. A Soyuz spacecraft always remained docked to ISS, serving as a Crew Return Vehicle (CRV), in case of an emergency evacuation. Ten-day taxi flights, often with commercial occupants in the third couch, replaced the Soyuz attached to the station approximately every six months. The ISS was originally serviced by the Soyuz TM spacecraft, but this was replaced by the upgraded Soyuz TMA.

• Progress carried dry cargo, propellants, water, and, in the Progress M, air (oxygen and nitrogen) to ISS. It brought food, spare and replacement parts, and personal effects to the Expedition crews on the station. The propellants Progress carried allowed the thrusters on Zvezda to be refuelled, and thus remain operational, maintaining the station in the correct attitude, when the CMGs in the American Z-l Truss became momentum-saturated.

Zvezda, Soyuz, and Progress, are the three Russian elements that made it possible to permanently occupy ISS at the earliest opportunity, but without the American Shuttle there would be very little ISS to occupy.

• Russian Docking Module-l, Pirs, was the final Russian module to receive funding from the Russian government, the planned science modules and power module were never built. Pirs docked automatically to Zvezda’s nadir to provide an airlock supporting EVA by crew members wearing Russian Orlan-M pressure suits while retaining a docking port for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft on the nadir. Two Strela cranes were later mounted on the exterior of Pirs.

The principal Russian Space Agency centres involved in the ISS programme were

• S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation (RSC) Energia, Korolev, Moscow, manages the Russian sector of the ISS programme and was responsible for the integration of Russia’s space station modules, the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and their respective launch vehicles.

• Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre, Zvezdny Gorodock, was where Russian cosmonauts, their international partners, and commercial Space Flight Participants are trained.

• Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre, Khrunichev, Moscow, was responsible for developing and constructing the Zarya (under contract to the American Boeing Company) and Zvezda modules and the Proton launch vehicle.

• Korolev Mission Control Centre (TsUP), Korolev, Moscow was the main Russian control centre for ISS operations.

• Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, was Russia’s launch facility. Its facilities oversaw the integration of all crewed and uncrewed spacecraft and their launch vehicles, before transporting them by rail to the launch pad, where they were erected and launched. (Baikonur Cosmodrome is named after the Baikonur region in which it lies, and not the town of Baikonur which is several hundred kilometres away. In the 1970s one NASA engineer explained facetiously that this

.. is like calling Kennedy Space Centre Tampa Spaceport.’’)

Following the departure of Endeavour, Korzun, Whitson, and Treschev settled down to the start of their 4.5-month stay aboard ISS. On June 18, they observed and photographed wildfires in Arizona and Colorado. Whitson activated the StelSys Liver Cell Research experiment in the Biotechnology Specimen Temperature Controller (BSTC) on June 21. The experiment compared liver cell function in microgravity with that of similar cells grown on Earth. Processed samples were stored in the Arctic-1 freezer for return to Earth on STS-112. When the experiments were complete the BSTC was powered off.

Having installed a new hard drive in the Zeolite Crystal Growth experiment during their second week on orbit, Huntsville powered on the EXPRESS Rack 2 containing the experiment. The first sample runs were commenced on June 27. All three astronauts completed their first Crew Interactions Questionnaire on June 25, while Korzun and Treschev also completed a running experiment on the station treadmill that required them to take close-up high-definition video of their facial features while running.

The crew also filled the docked Progress with rubbish, in preparation for its departure. The undocking of Progress M1-8, from Zvezda’s wake, took place at 04: 23, June 25, and the spacecraft re-entered the atmosphere and burned up as planned.

For several months in advance of its final report on the loss of STS-107 the chairman of the Investigation Board had been briefing NASA and the media on what had been found. Speaking about what the final report might contain NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe had warned, “It’s going to be ugly… This is not going to be anything that anybody’s going to be particularly happy with.’’

Likewise, Bill Gerstenmaier, Shuttle program manager said:

“We are well aware of what is coming out of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board and what is coming from the Shuttle Return to Flight discussions… We are looking at all of the systems on board the station and evaluating whether we need to do something directly or whether we made decisions in the past… we ought to go back and look at.”

NASA had been accused of excessive use of waivers during the preparation of the STS-107 flight. At the time of launch some 5,800 had been recorded during Columbia’s preparation. The Administration was accused of “bureaucratic fumbling and administrative missed signals’’.

The Final Report of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) was published in August 2003. It established that the left bipod ramp had fallen off of the External Tank during launch and had struck the leading edge of Columbia’s left wing in the region of Reinforced Carbon-Carbon Panels 6 through 9, on the internal bend where the wing root moves away from the fuselage. The suitcase-size block of foam caused a large hole in the RCC panels in a region that could not be seen through the flight deck windows. Columbia performed near-flawlessly throughout its mission until re-entry, when super-heated plasma entered the hole in the leading edge of the left wing and caused the destruction of the spacecraft. NASA management was severely criticised. Managers had refused requests from their engineers to have the orbiter photographed by a military reconnaissance satellite when the foam impact was identified on film of the launch. They had also adopted the attitude that if Columbia was fatally damaged then nothing could be done to save the crew.

The report made 15 recommendations for Return to Flight:

1. Initiate an aggressive programme to eliminate all External Tank Thermal Protection System debris shedding at the source with particular emphasis on the region where the bipod struts attach to the external tank.

2. Initiate a programme designed to increase the orbiter’s ability to sustain minor debris damage by measures such as improved impact-resistant Reinforced Carbon-Carbon and acreage titles.

3. Develop and implement a comprehensive inspection plan to determine the structural integrity of all Reinforced Carbon-Carbon system components.

4. For missions to the International Space Station, develop a practicable capability to inspect and effect emergency repairs to the widest possible range of damage to the Thermal Protection System, including both tile and Reinforced Carbon – Carbon, taking advantage of the additional capabilities available when near to or docked at the International Space Station… Accomplish an on-orbit Thermal Protection System inspection using appropriate assets and capabilities, early in all missions… The ultimate objective should be a fully autonomous capability for all missions to address the possibility that an International Space Station mission fails to achieve the correct orbit, fails to dock successfully, or is damaged during or after undocking.

5. Upgrade the imaging system capable of providing a minimum of three useful views of the Space Shuttle from lift-off to at least Solid Rocket Booster separa­tion… The operational criteria of these assets should be included in the Launch Commit Criteria for future launches.

6. Provide a capability to obtain and down-link high-resolution images of the External Tank after its separation.

7. Provide a capability to obtain and down-link high-resolution images of the underside of the Orbiter wing leading edge and forward section of both wings’ Thermal Protection System.

8. Modify the Memorandum of Agreement with the National Imagery and Mapping Agency to make the imaging of each Shuttle flight while on orbit a standard requirement.

9. Test and qualify the flight hardware bolt catchers.

10. Require that at least two employees attend all final closeouts and intertank area hand-spraying procedures.

11. Kennedy Space Centre Quality Assurance and United Space Alliance must return to the straightforward, industry-standard definition of “Foreign Object Debris’’ and eliminate any alternate or statistically deceptive definitions like “process debris’’.

12. Adopt and maintain a Shuttle flight schedule that is consistent with available resources. Although schedule deadlines are an important management tool, those deadlines must be regularly evaluated to ensure that any additional risk incurred to meet the schedule is recognised, understood, and acceptable.

13. Implement an expanded training programme in which the Mission Management Team faces potential crew and vehicle safety contingencies beyond launch and ascent. These contingencies should involve potential loss of Shuttle or crew, contain numerous uncertainties and unknowns, and require the Mission Management Team to assemble and interact support organisations across NASA/Contractor lines and in various locations.

14. Prepare a detailed plan for defining, establishing, transitioning, and implement­ing an independent Technical Engineering Authority, independent safety programme, and a reorganised Space Shuttle Integration Office.

15. Develop an interim programme of close-out photographs for all critical sub­systems that differ from engineering drawings. Digitise the close-out photograph system so that images are immediately available for on-orbit troubleshooting.

Chapter 9 of the Report addressed the future of American human access to space.

The report noted:

“The Board observes that none of the competing long-term visions for space have found support from the nation’s leadership, or indeed among the general public. The U. S. civilian space effort has moved forward for more than 30 years without a guiding vision, and none seems imminent. In the past, this absence of a strategic vision in itself has reflected a policy decision, since there have been many opportunities for the national leaders to agree on ambitious goals for space, and none have done so.’’

The CAIB did note that almost everyone seemed to agree that “The United States needs improved access for humans to low-Earth orbit as a foundation for whatever directions the nation’s space programme takes in the future.”

Board members called for a national debate to define America’s future in space. The report highlighted the short-sightedness of developing the Shuttle in isola­tion. Lack of funding and an often-hostile Congress meant that for the next 20 years after the decision to build the Shuttle, NASA made little or no attempt to develop parallel “access to space’’ technologies until the X-33 and X-34 programmes of 1994. As a result, those programmes were begun with a limited technology base, and X-33 proved beyond the technological capabilities of Lockheed-Martin at that time. The Report then recognised NASA’s attempts to broaden their technology base with the Space Launch Initiative (SLI) in 2000, and promptly narrowed that vision once more with the decision, in 2002, to redirect SLI to commence the Integrated Space Transportation Plan (ISTP) with its proposed Orbital Space Plane (OSP).

The Board made it clear that they did not study NASA’s plans for the ISTP, or the OSP in depth. Even so, they concluded:

“Because of the risks inherent in the original design of the Space Shuttle, because that design was based in many aspects on now-obsolete technologies, and because the Shuttle is now an ageing system but still developmental in character, it is in the nation’s interest to replace the Shuttle as soon as possible as the primary means for transporting humans to and from Earth orbit.’’

CAIB members recognised that in the mid-term that replacement would, more than likely, be the OSP and demanded:

“The design of the system should give overriding priority to crew safety, rather than trade safety against other performance criteria, such as low-cost, re-usability, or against advanced space operation capabilities other than crew transfer. This conclusion implies that whatever design NASA chooses should become the primary means for taking people to and from the International Space Station, not just a complement to the Space Shuttle.’’

This represented a major change in direction for the OSP, which NASA had originally intended to begin flying while the Shuttle continued to operate.

The CAIB members stated that there was considerable urgency in developing the OSP, which would require commitment and financial support from Congress and the American people. They stated that America must be prepared to support the OSP as a long-term commitment, and not shy away from the long-term cost, as ISS was likely to be the primary destination for Americans in space for the next decade, or longer.

The report called the failure to develop a Shuttle replacement vehicle “a failure of national leadership” caused by continuing to expect major technological advances in that vehicle’’. The CAIB recommended that everyone concerned should agree that the overriding design principal of the OSP should be “to move humans safely and reliably in to and out of Earth orbit. To demand more would be to fall into the same trap as previous unsuccessful efforts.” The paragraph concluded, “Continued US leadership in space is an important national objective. That leadership depends on a willingness to pay the costs of achieving it.”

On August 26, Sean O’Keefe made a speech that was broadcast to all NASA field centres. In that speech he told NASA’s employees:

“We must go forward and follow this blueprint in an effort to make this a much stronger organization. All of us at NASA are part of the solution… ultimately… to return to the exploration objectives that they dedicated their lives to.’’

From the moment that STS-107, Columbia, was lost, on February 1, 2003, NASA had been planning towards the Shuttle’s Return to Flight. NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe had immediately established the CAIB to identify the cause of Columbia’s loss and identify the actions NASA would be required to take before Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour could return to space. On July 28, 2003, O’Keefe also established the Return to Flight Task Group (RTFTG), to oversee NASA’s preparations for the Shuttle’s Return to Flight and the correct implementation of the CAIB’s recommendations. The CAIB published its report five weeks later, on August 26, 2003. It listed the 15 recommendations for the Shuttle’s safe return to flight contained earlier in this manuscript (see pp. 136-137).

Meanwhile, the loss of the second Space Shuttle orbiter with a full crew of seven astronauts had caused a re-think of America’s human spaceflight policy. On January 14, 2004, President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration. It called for the Shuttle’s Return to Flight and the completion of ISS to “Core Complete’’, with all American and International Partners’ modules in place. Additional Russian modules would be added as and when the Russian economy allowed. “Core Complete’’ was to be achieved in 2010, at which time the Shuttle fleet would be retired. NASA would develop by 2014 a new Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), designed to act as a CTV and CRV for the station before returning humans to the Moon by 2020. In order to complete ISS by 2010, NASA would have to return the Shuttle to flight in 2005 and fly five successful missions per year for the next five years thereafter. It was a bold, if not impossible launch schedule. Despite all of their good words about the new priority to be given to crew safety to the media, NASA would have no choice but to be budget and schedule-driven.

Throughout 2004, NASA set a succession of target dates for the Return to Flight launch of STS-114, but they passed, one after the other, with no launch. Again and again the RTFTG reported to NASA Headquarters that the Administration was not sufficiently advanced on the CAIB’s 15 recommendations to attempt the launch. In January 2005, the RTFTG reported that NASA had still failed to meet 8 of the 15 recommendations. The following month Sean O’Keefe resigned as NASA Administrator. His position was filled by Michael Griffin, a former senior NASA engineer, on April 14, 2005.

By that time the STS-114 launch was set for May 15, and the vehicle was sitting on LC-39, Pad-B. Griffin delayed the launch and STS-114 was returned to the VAB, to have its ET and SRBs exchanged with those that had been delivered for the next

flight by Atlantis. The new ET contained anti-ice formation heaters that were part of the attempt by Lockheed-Martin to prevent foam and ice shedding from the ET during launch. STS-114 had originally been stacked to an ET that did not have these heaters.

The RTFTG final report Executive Summary was published on June 28; it stated that NASA had still failed to meet three of the CAIB’s recommendations for a safe return to flight. They had:

1. Failed to prove they had significantly reduced, or stopped foam and ice shedding from the ET during launch. NASA Administrator Michael Griffin had stated that the Administration might have to accept that it was impossible to stop all foam shedding from the External Tank.

2. Failed to harden the orbiter against strikes by foam and ice shed from the ET.

3. Failed to demonstrate heatshield tile repair methods and prove that repaired tiles could survive re-entry heating. (Ironically, STS-114 was due to demonstrate tile repair methods on deliberately damaged tiles carried into orbit for that specific purpose in the payload bay.)

STS-114 was moved back to the launchpad and prepared for launch on July 13. On that date the countdown was stopped at T — 2 hours when one of four fuel sensors malfunctioned. The launch was cancelled and an investigation began. Rather than replace the sensor, NASA informed the media that they fully understood the problem and would continue with the new launch if the exact problem was repeated during that attempt. Launch was set for July 26.

On July 18, Krikalev and Phillips tested the motion control system on Soyuz TMA-6. With Discovery’s launch delayed, NASA managers brought the transfer of Soyuz TMA-6 from Pirs to Zarya forward. The transfer was required so Pirs could be used as an airlock for an EVA by the Expedition-11 crew, originally planned for August. The transfer took place on July 19, with undocking from Pirs occurring at 06: 38. Krikalev backed the Soyuz away 30 m, flew laterally along the length of the station, and, after 14 minutes of station keeping, docking to Zarya took place at 07: 08. Fifty-two minutes later the crew entered ISS and began reconfiguring it for normal use. July 23, 2005, was the Expedition-11 crew’s 100th day in space. Having completed the packing of items for return to Earth on STS-114, they began to pack items for return to Earth on STS-121, due to fly in September 2005.

In advance of his present launch, Krikalev had said:

“We have a pretty well-developed process and pretty good calculations of how much water the human body consumes, how much food you need to continue operation on board the Station, and of course this kind of supply is first priority. That’s why, when Shuttle was not able to fly, all this kind of load was taken by Progress. But as a result we were not able to deliver as much equipment for scientific experiments. So increasing the variety ofmeans to deliver cargo on orbit increases not only amount of food (we don’t need food more than we can eat—we can increase our margins in case of emergency again, but we don’t need much more food than was delivered before), but we would be able to deliver more equipment for experiments. Returning [the] Shuttle back to flight would mean more scientific capabilities because we would be able to have three crewmembers after that. We would be able to conduct more experiments.”

Phillips was also looking forward to the Shuttle fleet returning to flight:

‘‘[S]ince the Columbia accident, the Russian Space Agency has been literally carrying the load and bringing us all the supplies we need, mostly on the Progress vehicle, [and] smaller amounts on the Soyuz vehicles. One impact of that is that we’ve only had a crew of two instead of a crew of three, which, of course, reduces the amount of science we can do. Another impact is that we’ve frankly been operating on pretty thin margins of certain consumables—food, water and oxygen. Once the Space Shuttles start flying, they carry a huge amount of mass to orbit, so they can bring our reserves of food, oxygen, and water back up to where they should be. The Shuttle makes water with its electrical power genera­tion system [fuel cells]. We should get well with water, food and oxygen, as well as spare parts that we haven’t been able to bring back.

Another thing that people don’t often think of is the Shuttle also carries a tremendous amount of down-mass. We’ve been accumulating a lot of equipment, some of which is equipment that needs to be returned to Earth and some of which is just plain trash, and there are limited amounts we can get rid of on the Progress vehicles. We should be able to load some of that stuff on the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module that’ll be in the payload bay of the Shuttle, and help clean out the Station a little bit.’’

The STS-114 Return to Flight crew was made up of two pre-STS-107 crews. Lawrence, Thomas, and Camarda were assigned to the original STS-114 crew, which should have carried the original three-person Expedition-7 crew to ISS and returned the Expedition-6 crew to Earth. Collins, Kelly, Robinson, and Noguchi were the original STS-116 crew, which should have carried the original three-person Expedition-8 crew up to ISS and returned the Expedition-7 crew to Earth. The new STS-114 would retain much of the original flight’s logistics mission, carrying

an MPLM to the station and a replacement CMG. For the first time the MPLM would be lifted out of the payload bay and returned to it using the SSRMS.

After a 2.5-year delay, STS-114 was finally launched at 10:39, July 26, 2005, and entered orbit a few minutes later. Throughout the launch over 100 high-resolution cameras filmed the ascent from all angles, in order to identify any debris that might shed from the vehicle. Noguchi used a hand-held video camera to film the ET as it was jettisoned. Before beginning their sleep period at 17: 00, the crew un-berthed the RMS and used its cameras to view the clearances between Discovery’s Ku-band antenna and the new Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) moored along the starboard sill of the payload bay.

Meanwhile, processing of the launch imagery showed a small piece of heatshield tile departing from close to Discovery’s nosewheel doors. A tile in that area had been damaged and repaired during vehicle preparation, and this repair may have been shaken loose during launch. At SRB separation, a large piece of debris was seen departing from the ET and moving away without striking the orbiter. Both events were videoed by new cameras mounted on the ET. Subsequent review of the images would show that the debris seen departing from the ET was the foam protuberance air load ramp: in short, it had the potential to fatally damage Discovery, just as the foam bipod ramp had doomed Columbia during the launch of STS-107. Only the airflow over the vehicle at SRB separation had prevented the large block of foam striking Discovery. Despite all of the work re-designing the area surrounding the bipod after STS-107, cameras revealed that a strip of insulation some 15 cm to 17 cm long had peeled away from the bipod itself. Also, two small dents were observed where the bipod ramp had been fitted up until STS-107. The dents should have been filled prior to the ET’s delivery to KSC, but apparently had not been, nor was the fact picked up during post-delivery inspections in the VAB, or during vehicle stacking and preparation for launch. On the subject of foam loss, NASA Administrator Michael Griffin said:

“Our guys are going to take a professional look at every frame of footage we have from every camera we have. These are test flights. The primary object under flight test is the external tank and all of the design changes we have made so we would not have a repeat of Columbia.”

Discovery’s crew were told of the two major debris-shedding events and that flight controllers would continue to review the various images at their disposal. Those images would ultimately reveal some 25 impacts on the orbiter during launch. Six areas would receive further inspection, including two regions where the felt-like material that was used to fill the gaps between the Shuttle’s tiles was seen to be protruding. It was feared that re-entering with the filler strips protruding might cause boundary layer turbulence and higher localised heating levels during re-entry if they were not removed.

Despite everything, shortly after achieving orbit, Collins paid respect to the seven astronauts lost on STS-107 saying, “We miss them, and we are continuing their mission. God bless them tonight, and God bless their families.’’ The crew began their 8-hour eat-sleep period just after 16: 00.

STS-114’s first full day in space began at 00:39. The crew downloaded their images of the ET separation. Kelly and Thomas activated the RMS, using it to pick up the OBSS, which was then employed to carry out a thorough laser-video scan of Discovery’s exterior, which was downloaded to Houston in its turn. Following the survey, the OBSS was re-berthed and the RMS cameras were used to video the Thermal Protection System on the crew compartment. With the external surveys completed the crew began preparations for docking with ISS by extending the docking ring and inspecting equipment that they would use during the closing manoeuvres. They also completed tests on the two EMUs that would be used during the mission’s three EVAs.

Flight Day 3 began at 23: 39, July 27. During the final rendezvous with ISS Collins slowed Discovery’s approach and performed a nose-over-tail pitch man­oeuvre (official name: r-bar pitch manoeuvre) at a distance of 200 metres below the station. This allowed the Expedition-11 crew to obtain high-resolution digital photographs of Discovery’s underside. Docking occurred at 07: 18, July 28, by which time NASA had already announced that the remainder of the Shuttle fleet had been grounded indefinitely, as a result of the debris shed from STS-114’s ET during launch. Shuttle programme manager William Parsons announced, “Until we’re ready, we won’t go fly again. I don’t know when that might be.’’ He continued, “You have to

admit when you’re wrong. We were wrong… We need to do some work… foam should not have come off. It came off. We’ve got to go do something about that.’’

Following the usual greeting and safety brief, the two crews got to work carrying out additional inspections of Discovery. With the station structure obstructing direct use of the RMS, Kelly, Lawrence, and Phillips used the SSRMS to lift the OBSS from its storage location and hand it to Discovery’s RMS, which was operated by Thomas. The OBSS was then used to continue observations of the orbiter. Robinson and Noguchi spent time preparing for their three EVAs. After a joint meal both crews began their sleep period at 03: 40, July 29. While they were asleep mission control cycled Unity’s nadir CBM in anticipation of the following day’s activities.

The Shuttle crew were woken up at 23: 39, with the Expedition crew following at 00: 09, July 30. Following breakfast, Lawrence and Kelly used the SSRMS to grapple the MPLM Raffaello, lift it out of Discovery’s payload bay, at 02: 00, and dock it to Unity’s nadir. Electrical power from the station was applied to the MPLM at 08:50, and the hatches were opened to allow unloading to commence just after 10: 00.

In the meantime, Kelly and Phillips walked the SSRMS off Destiny and on to the MBS at 05: 39. They then used the arm’s cameras to provide situational awareness views of the survey that Camarda and Kelly would perform using the OBSS. Begin­ning at 07: 00, the latter pair used the OBSS mounted on Discovery’s RMS to view the six areas of special interest on Discovery’s heat protection system highlighted by Houston following review of the images already downloaded. Programme managers told the media that they were “feeling good about Discovery coming home.’’ Noguchi and Robinson continued to prepare their equipment for their first EVA, planned for July 30.

Discovery’s crew sealed the hatches between the two vehicles when they returned to the Shuttle for their sleep period. Before they went to bed they lowered the internal pressure to allow Noguchi and Robinson to acclimatise to the lower pressure at which their EMUs would operate. The air removed from Discovery was used to replenish the station’s atmosphere. Discovery’s crew were awoken at 23: 43, and after their breakfast they prepared for the first EVA. Noguchi and Robinson began their pre­breathing of pure oxygen at 00: 39. At the same time Krikalev and Phillips walked the SSRMS off the MBS and back on to the exterior of Destiny, from where Lawrence and Kelly would operate it in support of the EVA.

The EVA began at 05: 46, July 30, when Noguchi and Robinson exited through Discovery’s airlock. Noguchi remarked, “What a view.’’ Robinson countered with, “There are just no words to describe how cool this is.’’

Once they were outside, Quest’s outer door was also opened to provide an emergency return to the station. Internally the hatches between Discovery and ISS had been closed while the two astronauts made their egress. They were now opened, to allow Collins and Camarda to transfer items between the two vehicles. During the EVA, Camarda also assisted Kelly in operating Discovery’s RMS, to use the OBSS to view seven areas of interest along the leading edge of Discovery’s port wing.

Having collected their tools, Noguchi and Robinson began a demonstration of how damaged heatshield tiles might be repaired on a future Shuttle flight. Working side by side, and using deliberately damaged tiles and RCC panels for the demon­stration, one astronaut repaired damaged tiles using the Emittance Wash Applicator (EWA) while the other attempted to repair RCC panel samples using the Non-Oxide Adhesive Experiment (NOAX). With that important task complete they moved to the exterior of Quest, where they installed the External Stowage Platform-2 (ESP-2) Attachment Device (ESPAD) and associated cabling.

Noguchi’s next task was to replace a GPS antenna mounted on the ITS, which he completed without difficulty. Meanwhile, Robinson collected the tools they would require on their second EVA, and also re-routed electrical power plugs to direct power to CMG-2, which had been off-line since a circuit breaker had tripped in March 2005. Power flowed to CMG-2 at 10: 20, and controllers in Houston began the gyro’s spin-up to 6,600 revolutions per minute before bringing it back on-line as part of the ISS attitude control system. With time to spare at the end of the EVA, the two men recovered two long-term exposure experiments and photographed some dis­turbed insulation on the exterior of Discovery’s crew compartment. Quest’s hatch was closed, as were the internal hatches between Discovery and ISS, while Noguchi and Robinson returned to Discovery’s airlock. The EVA ended after 6 hours 50 min­utes, at 12:36.

The day ended with Houston declaring Discovery’s tiles and thermal blankets fit to withstand re-entry. Their review of the RCC areas along the wings’ leading edges was still continuing. During the day Collins voiced her concerns over the foam shedding from the ET during launch saying, “Personally, I did not expect any large piece of foam to fall off the External Tank. We thought we had that problem licked.’’ During the day, the Shuttle’s flight had also been extended by 24 hours. The extension would allow for the transfer of more water and additional supplies, including two of the orbiter’s laptop computers, from Discovery to ISS, to support the new delay before the next Shuttle’s arrival at the station.

July 31 was a day of relatively light duties, including the transfer of equipment between the MPLM and the station, as well as interviews with journalists. Noguchi and Robinson reviewed plans for their second EVA, during which they would attempt to replace CMG-1, which had failed in June 2002, and had been off-line since that time. In preparation for the EVA, Lawrence and Kelly walked the SSRMS to the correct position on the exterior of Destiny.

Following their sleep period the crew were woken up at 23: 09, July 31, and began preparation for the EVA. Noguchi and Robinson opened Discovery’s airlock hatch at 04: 42, August 1, and set about preparing their tools. Meanwhile, controllers in Houston had turned off the electrical power to CMG-1. Both men made their way hand over hand to the Z1 Truss, on Unity’s zenith, where Noguchi mounted the work platform on the end of the SSRMS, which was operated by Lawrence and Kelly. During the ride out to his work place Noguchi remarked, “Oh, the view is priceless. I can see the moon.’’ The two men removed CMG-1, and Noguchi held it in his arms while he was manoeuvred down to Discovery’s payload bay. Robinson also made his way back to the payload bay. There, Noguchi temporarily stowed the old CMG while its replacement was removed from a crate and then replaced by the old unit. Noguchi held the replacement CMG-1 while he was manoeuvred back up to the Z1-Truss, where he waited for Robinson to arrive. The two men then worked to install the new

CMG. With the installation complete, the new CMG-1 was spun up and, after several hours of monitoring, brought on-line as part of the station’s attitude control system. Discovery’s hatch was closed at 11:56, after an EVA lasting 7 hours 14 minutes. The remainder of the day was spent transferring equipment and rubbish between the two spacecraft.

On the ground, Flight Director Paul Hill described the new attitude for keeping the crew informed on the state of their spacecraft:

“Our intent is never to hide the state of the vehicle from the crew. But has our threshold changed for TPS damage assessment? You bet it has. There are some things that we are significantly smarter on today than we were two and a half years ago, and I don’t know how we could be in any different place today, since we all know that TPS damage cost the lives of the last crew.’’

On August 2, Houston gave permission for Robinson to venture beneath Dis­covery and attempt to remove, or cut away the two protruding gap fillers during the third EVA, planned for the following day. The crew spent the day preparing for this additional task, which included Lawrence and Kelly practising the intended SSRMS manoeuvres using software carried in one of the station’s laptops. To make time for Robinson to work with the gap fillers, Lawrence and Kelly used the SSRMS to unstow the EPS-2 from its position in Discovery’s payload bay. This had originally been included in the timeline for the third EVA.

Following another sleep period, the Shuttle crew were awoken at 23: 09, August 2. Noguchi and Robinson exited Discovery’s airlock at 04:48, August 3, to begin their third EVA. Their first task was to make their way to the ESPAD that they had installed on the exterior of Quest during their first EVA. Lawrence and Kelly then manoeuvred ESP-2 into position on the ESPAD using the SSRMS. With the ESP secured in place the SSRMS was walked off Destiny and on to the MBS, mounted on the ITS.

Noguchi installed the MISSE-5 exposure experiment and removed the Rotary Joint Motor Controller from the ITS and placed it in storage. In the meantime, Kelly and Camarda used Discovery’s RMS, with the OBSS still attached, to view the tile and RCC repair experiments that Noguchi and Robinson had completed during their first EVA. With his tasks completed Noguchi moved over to offer whatever support he could to Robinson in his final task. Robinson mounted the SSRMS and was manoeuvred beneath Discovery’s nose, where he was easily able to pull the two protruding “gap fillers’’ out from between TPS tiles. Robinson told Houston, “It looks like the big patient is cured!’’ With that task complete, Noguchi and Robinson returned to Discovery’s airlock and sealed the hatch at 10:49, after 6 hours 1 minute of exposure to space.

Following their hectic schedule, August 4 was planned as a relatively easy day. Lawrence and Kelly walked the SSRMS off the MBS and back to the exterior of

Destiny. They then attached the free end to Raffaello, in advance of its undocking. Noguchi spoke to the Japanese Prime Minister by video link and the American astronauts received a call from President Bush, who told them:

“I just wanted to tell you all how proud the American people are of our astronauts. I want to thank you for being risk-takers for the sake of exploration. And I wish you Godspeed in your mission. I know you’ve got very important work to do ahead of you. We look forward to seeing the successful completion of this mission. And obviously, as you prepare to come back, a lot of Americans will be praying for a safe return.’’

A day of more equipment stowage was followed by a joint meal and a com­memoration of the STS-107 crew. During the day the Shuttle’s crew paid their respects to the American astronauts and Russian cosmonauts who have been lost in the exploration of space. Lawrence remarked:

“Even if the future is equally unimaginable to us, we can be sure that future generations will look upon our endeavours in space as we look upon those early expeditions across the seas. To those generations, the need to explore space will be as self-evident as the need previous generations felt to explore the Earth and the seas.’’

Krikalev and Phillips ended their day by preparing Unity’s CBM for Raffaello’s undocking, before both crews went to sleep in their respective spacecraft.

Discovery’s crew was woken up at 22: 15, August 4. Kelly and Lawrence used the SSRMS to undock Raffaello from Unity’s nadir, at 07:34, August 5. Raffaello now contained 3,175 kg of items dating back to Expedition-6, the last Expedition crew to be supported by a Shuttle flight. With the MPLM secured in Discovery’s payload bay at 10: 03, Camarda and Thomas joined Kelly and Lawrence to locate the OBSS along the starboard payload bay door sill. The remainder of the day was spent stowing equipment on Discovery’s mid-deck. Both crews went to bed at 14: 09.

Awake again at 22: 09, the two crews shared a farewell ceremony for the leaving visitors at 00: 36, August 6. Discovery’s crew returned to their spacecraft and the hatches were sealed at 01 : 14. Kelly was at the controls when Discovery undocked, at 02: 24, and moved away to a distance of 122 m. He began a fly-around manoeuvre at 03: 54, and finally manoeuvred clear of ISS at 05: 09. The crew were given the remainder of the day as free time, going to sleep at 00: 39, August 7. The ISS crew went to bed at 14: 09.

Discovery’s crew were woken up at 20: 39, and spent much of their work day stowing equipment for re-entry. The one remaining question was the area of TPS below Collins’ window which had been under review since it was first seen in video footage. Julie Payette called from Houston to say, “We have good news. The MMT just got to the conclusion that the blanket underneath… the window is safe for return. There is no issue.’’ During the day, Collins, Kelly, and Robinson tested Discovery’s aerodynamic surfaces and fired the orbiter’s thrusters. The day ended at 12:39, August 7. Meanwhile, the Expedition-11 crew spent a quiet day and adjusted their schedule back to their normal routine. They were woken up at 02: 00, August 7.

Discovery’s crew began August 7 by waking up at 20: 39. They commenced their final preparations for the de-orbit burn and re-entry. The crew had two opportunities to land in the pre-dawn darkness at KSC, at 04:47 or 06: 22, August 8, but Discovery was waved off for 24 hours, due to unpredictable weather. Following the wave-off, Discovery’s engines were fired at 08: 19 to optimise the landing opportunities on August 9. The crew’s day ended at 00: 39, August 9.

Up at 08: 39, the crew repeated their final preparations for re-entry, going through the checklist once again. All three landing sites, KSC, Florida, Edwards Air Force Base, California, and White Sands, New Mexico, were activated for this second attempt to land. Meanwhile, the world’s media were baying like dogs, waiting for Discovery to burn up, so they could repeat their tired calls for the space programme to be cancelled. Persistent thunderstorms over Florida led to the two KSC landing opportunities being cancelled. Discovery would now land in California. Travelling with its three SSMEs forward, Discovery’s thrusters performed retrofire at 07 : 06. Turning, the orbiter assumed the usual nose forward and high position for re­entry. Collins brought the flight to a successful close, gliding Discovery to a perfect landing at Edwards Air Force Base in the pre-dawn darkness, touching down at 08: 11.

Krikalev and Phillips sent their congratulations from ISS, but the successful landing meant that the Shuttle fleet was now grounded once more.

In her post-landing speech Collins remembered the crew of STS-107 once more:

“Today was a very happy day for us, but we have mixed feelings. We have very bittersweet feelings as we remember the Columbia crew… I thought about them the whole mission—what their experiences were. The Columbia crew believed in what they did, they believed in the space mission. I know if they were listening to me right now, they’d want us to continue this mission.’’

NASA Administrator Michael Griffin reminded the media at a press conference a few days later, when the crew returned to JSC in Houston:

“For two-and-a-half-years we have been through the very worst that manned spaceflight can bring us. Over the last two weeks, we have seen the very best.’’

He continued:

“Essentially, this was a test flight. It has provided data that we can use going forward. The bad news is there were three or four things we didn’t get. The good news is we hugely reduced any damage to the orbiter through the engineering measures we took to improve the tank. We specifically said the return to flight test sequence was two test flights. We plan for the worst and we hope for the best and that’s how we conduct business.’’

Collins was more personal when she spoke to the engineers who had returned the Shuttle to flight,

“Getting the Shuttle flying again was difficult work, but it was a labour of love. Words cannot describe how much my thanks go out to you for putting your heart and soul into what you believe.”

Canada became only the third nation to launch a satellite, in 1962. Despite this, Canada maintains no launch facilities of its own and uses NASA facilities within America’s national borders. The civilian Canadian Space Agency (CSA) (in French L’Agence Spatiale Canadienne or ASC) was not established until 1989. Canada co­operates regularly with NASA in America and is a “Co-operating State’’ with the

European Space Agency. By paying into the ESA budget, Canada is given a position on the main committees of the ESA. Canada also provides instruments to fly on European satellites and deep-space probes.

Canada has provided two elements that are vital to the construction of ISS, plus a third which is vital to Space Shuttle survivability in the final years of its service. All three were developed and built under NASA contracts:

• Remote Manipulator System (RMS): Development of the Shuttle’s RMS, popularly referred to as the “Canadarm”, began in 1974, when Canada agreed to develop and build a single RMS for the Shuttle orbiter Columbia. NASA subsequently ordered four more, for the other orbiters. The RMS was 15m long and had two rotating joints (pitch and yaw) at the shoulder, one joint (pitch) at the elbow, and three joints (pitch, yaw, and roll) at the wrist. The two booms were made of graphite epoxy. The upper boom was 5 m long, and the lower boom was 5.8 m long, both were 33 cm in diameter. A single end effector, on the free end, housed three wires that were used in conjunction to grasp special grapple fixtures on the items to be lifted. These wires pulled the payload snug against the end effector and allowed it to be moved around. Shuttle Mission Specialists operated the RMS from the orbiter’s aft flight deck, using either the Shuttle’s own computers to translate hand controller commands into smooth RMS move­ments, or manually, by commanding each rotation joint individually. The RMS was permanently fixed to the Shuttle’s payload bay door hinge-line and is returned to Earth with the orbiter at the end of each flight.

• Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), affectionately called “Canadarm-2”, was a more advanced tool than the Shuttle RMS. It was origin­ally designed to grasp the Shuttle and pull it in to dock with Space Station Freedom. The unique feature of the SSRMS was the Latching End Effector (LEE) at each end, which allowed either end to mate to a Power-Data Grapple Fixture (PDGF) on the exterior of ISS, while the free end performed the lifting tasks. This feature also allowed the SSRMS to be “walked” end over end across the exterior of the American sector of ISS, from one PDGF to another. The RMS on a docked Shuttle and the SSRMS were capable of working together, either lifting items out of the Shuttle payload bay, or handing items from one to the other.

The SSRMS was also designed to be mounted on the Mobile Base System, a small cart that could translate along rails mounted on the ram face of the ITS. This additional mobility allowed the SSRMS to support the construction of the ends of the ITS, while being mounted on and travelling along the face of those ITS elements already in place. The reach of the SSRMS was dictated by the necessity to move the Port-6 ITS from its temporary position on the Z-1 Truss and install it on the exposed end of the Port-5 ITS. The SRMS was designed for on-orbit replacement of its major parts and was not expected to return to Earth.

An extension tool, to be used with the SSRMS was the “Dextre” manipulator system. This consisted of two smaller Remote Manipulator Systems that could be used to complete more delicate work on the exterior of ISS without the requirement for crew members to perform EVAs.

• Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS): As a result of the STS-107 tragedy in February 2003, the Columbia Accident Investigation Board recommended that NASA develop a method of inspecting areas of the orbiter that had previously been inaccessible to the crew in flight. The OBSS provided an extension to the Shuttle’s RMS and the cameras and laser sensors on the OBSS allowed the crew to inspect those areas of their spacecraft that were not readily visible from the flight deck windows, or with the cameras on the un-extended RMS. On early flights the OBSS was mounted on the opposite payload bay door hinge-line to the RMS, making it easy for the latter to pick up. It was then returned to that location and carried back to Earth at the end of each flight. In 2007, STS-118 astronauts installed a mounting to allow the OBSS to be stored on the exterior of ISS when the Shuttle is retired in 2010. This would mean that the OBSS was still available to examine the exterior of the ISS for meteorite strikes, or other damage, even when the Shuttle is no longer flying. The Shuttle RMS, SSRMS, and OBSS were all developed and built by Macdonald, Dettwiler & Associates, Limited, Brampton, Ontario.

The first Canadian astronaut flew on the Shuttle in 1984 and was followed by a further 7 Canadian nationals who have taken part in a total of 13 Shuttle flights through the end of 2007. Two further Canadian astronauts have retired without flying in space.

Canada maintains a number of space centres:

• John H. Chapman Space Centre, Saint-Hubert, Quebec was the CSA’s Head­quarters and oversees the management of the national space programme.

• David Florida Laboratory, Ottawa, Ontario, an engineering facility.

• Mobile Servicing System Operations Complex (MOC), Longueluil, Quebec, prepared the Canadian systems and provided astronaut training on Shuttle RMS and SSRMS systems. It also provided full support for all RMS and SSRMS engineering and operations.

NASA suspended all Shuttle flights on June 25, 2002 as a result of small cracks, between 2.5 mm and 7.62 mm in length, being found in the metal liners used to direct liquid hydrogen flow inside the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) propellant lines on Atlantis, on July 11. Three cracks were subsequently found on Columbia’s No. 2 SSME and Atlantis’ and Discovery’s No. 1 SSMEs. One crack was found in the No. 1 and No. 2 SSMEs on Endeavour. Investigation showed that the cracks were most likely caused by bad welding, rather than age, or wear and tear. The entire Shuttle fleet was grounded as a safety measure while an investigation and replacement work was undertaken. The principal concern was that small pieces of metal might be ingested into an engine during a launch. Inspection of the five orbiters was expected to take the remainder of July. With no spare pipe liners in stock, repair would take at least 7 weeks. Replacement would require new liners to be manufactured, a task requiring several months.

In this same period, a mechanical fault was discovered in the bearings inside the hydraulic jacks that maintained the Mobile Launch Platform in the horizontal position during the Shuttle’s rollout to the launch pad. Fifteen cracks were discovered in Crawler-1 and a further 13 in Crawler-2. All 16 jacks on the two Crawler Transporters were replaced.

When the Expedition-5 crew were informed that their occupation of ISS had been extended for one month, Bursch wrote,

“We just got news that our Shuttle flight home has been delayed… That should send us over the six-month mark and we should break Shannon Lucid’s U. S. record of 188 continuous days in space. That feels nice to be able to share in a record… but I sure do miss my family.’’

Meanwhile, NASA’s own inspectors criticised the Administration for not thoroughly checking on United Space Alliance, the private contractor that serviced the Shuttles and prepared them for launch. NASA had announced that the estimated risk of a catastrophic failure of a Shuttle had risen from 1: 78 in 1986, the year STS-51L was lost, to 1: 55 in July 2002.

With all of this going on, STS-107, the “Freestar’’ solo science flight planned for launch on July 19,2002 was grounded indefinitely, but was expected to be launched at the end of the year. This 16-day flight, with a crew of 7, would carry the new SpaceHab Research Double Module, loaded with more than 80 experiments. The mission was designed to answer the criticism that ISS was not performing sufficient science. However, on the resumption of flights it was decided that STS-107 would not now be launched until after STS-112 and STS-113 had flown to ISS, delivering the Starboard-1 (S-1) and Port-1 (P-1) ITS segments, respectively, which would slip STS-107 to January 2003.

Progress M-48 lifted off at 21:48, August 28, 2003, and docked to Zvezda’s wake two days later, at 23: 40, August 30. The new Progress carried food, water, and propellants as well as replacement parts for ISS, tools, and a new laptop computer. There was also a cellphone and global positioning equipment, for use by the Soyuz TMA-2 crew in the event they land off-target, as the Soyuz TMA-1 crew had. There were a number of experiments for the Expedition-8 crew and others for ESA astronaut Pedro Duque to perform during his 8-day stay on ISS.

The launch was made amidst continuing concerns over funding for the Russian Soyuz and Progress vehicles needed to continue support of ISS occupation in the absence of Shuttle flights. The Russians felt that the details of their legal contract did not cover the unique situation that they now found themselves in and Energia managers were having difficulties making their political leaders and their budget controllers in Russia and America understand their difficulties. The subsequent allocation of 3 billion roubles to Rosaviakosmos would be used to launch 11 Soyuz TMA spacecraft on crew rotation flights and sufficient Progress vehicles to carry 80 tonnes of supplies to the station. None of the money would be used to develop and construct new Russian station modules. Rosaviakosmos managers pointed out that if the Russian government did not fund new station modules separately then Russian participation in ISS would remain limited to cosmonauts serving on Expedition crews, Soyuz TMA taxi crews, and robotic Progress cargo flights.

Meanwhile, Donald Thomas, the Mission Specialist who had been removed from the Expedition-5 crew due to concerns over his total radiation exposure, was named as ISS Programme Scientist, the head of America’s science programme on the station. In the same period, in Washington DC, NASA’s FY2004 budget had been settled at $15.3 billion, with politicians removing $20 million from the proposed ISS funding for that financial year.

Having delivered its oxygen supply and been loaded with rubbish, Progress M1- 10 undocked from Pirs at 15 : 42, September 4. The undocking cleared Pirs’ nadir for the arrival of Soyuz TMA-3 occupied by the Expedition-8 crew. Progress M1-10 would stay in orbit for the next month performing independent Russian scientific experiments involving using the spacecraft’s cameras to view sites of ecological interest, before it was commanded to re-enter and burn up on October 3, 2003.

Malenchenko and Lu spent the following week unloading Progress M-48 and using its supply of nitrogen to increase the pressure inside ISS. Repressurisation using the Progress’ oxygen would occur at a later date. The Progress’ thrusters were also tested in advance of a burn to raise the station’s altitude.

On September 10, Lu experienced trouble adjusting the resistance on one of the canisters on the RED exercise apparatus. He removed the canister and repaired it during the following week. Two new canisters for the RED were delivered on Progress M-48, but Lu hoped to leave them untouched so that the Expedition-8 crew could hold them in reserve in case of further failures.

Two days later the crew informed the ground that they could barely hear their transmissions. The fault was traced to equipment at Houston that relayed the audio uplink to ISS from the three control rooms at Houston, Huntsville, and Korolev. The problem was resolved by bypassing the equipment in question while it was repaired. In orbit, Lu continued his PFMI experiment programme. He also performed the first operations of the Hand Posture Analyser, an experiment that required him to wear an instrumented glove while performing a range of tasks. The experiment allowed its investigators to study how astronauts use their hands in microgravity. Lu also performed two educational tasks, making films in Destiny for use in American schools. Malenchenko replaced the failed battery in Zvezda and a computer hard drive. As the week ended, cameras on the exterior of ISS were used to image Hurricane Isobel as it crossed the Atlantic Ocean en route to its landfall in North Carolina.

The two astronauts powered up the SSRMS on September 23, for training and mechanical tests. The manoeuvres they performed placed part of the arm in sunlight so that any performance differences of the moment sensor in sunlight and shadow might be recorded. They also performed maintenance on two Russian Orlan EVA suits, ensuring they remained in good condition. Lu completed the Expedition-7 work with the PFMI experiment, while Malenchenko performed Russian medical experi­ments. He also made the first use of the station’s ultrasound equipment, using it to monitor Lu whilst he was exercising on the station’s stationary bicycle.

On October 1, the rocket motors on Progress M-48 were used to raise the station’s orbit and two days later Progress M1-10, which had spent a month perform­ing Russian experiments in orbit, was de-orbited and burned up in the atmosphere. The first week of October saw Lu install a Protein Crystal Growth experiment in the MSG, for Duque to use later in the month. He also set up a soldering experiment and an automated Earth observation camera. Malenchenko continued to perform Russian biomedical experiments, as well as observing thunderstorms, ocean biology, and studies of human-made disaster prediction. Weekly maintenance included Malenchenko inspecting fire sensors and checking systems in Pirs, prior to the arrival of Soyuz TMA-3. Lu configured the American laptops for the Expedi­tion-8 crew and both men worked together to perform maintenance on the treadmill and the RED.

During the following week, the crew began spending more time preparing for their return to Earth, at the end of the month. They donned their Sokol launch and re-entry suits and measured how well they fitted within their Soyuz couch liners. On

October 10, the two men in orbit had the opportunity to talk with the Expedition-8 crew in Korolev. Lu spent much of his time in Destiny, where he worked with the SAMS and made electrical connections as part of the In Space Soldering Investiga­tion (ISSI) experiment. Later in the week one of the station’s RPCMs, which routed electrical data throughout the station, failed. The failure disabled one camera and some onboard redundancy, but caused no problems to the arrival of Soyuz TMA-3. Work to identify the problem began immediately on the ground.

During their final week alone on ISS, Malenchenko and Lu concentrated on their preparation for returning to Earth. They carried out systems checks in Soyuz TMA-2 and began transferring items from ISS to their spacecraft. Lu continued to perform experiments and maintenance. On October 15, he replaced the malfunctioning RPCM in Destiny. Two days later, he spent several hours collecting water samples from the cooling system in Quest, which was used to cool the suits of astronauts making EVAs from the airlock. The samples would be returned to Earth for analysis.

As his occupation of ISS drew to a close, Lu told of earlier plans to abandon ISS during a press conference:

“The critical things the ground cannot do, of course, is repair and change out things up here… Luckily, nothing has happened that could cripple the Space Station, while we were up here… I’m much more comfortable with a crew on board knowing they could take care of something you had not planned for.’’

Indeed, this was a lesson learned the hard way by the Russians with their Salyut and Mir stations.