Category FLIGHT and M ОТІOIM

During the first months of the fighting in 1914, airplanes buzzed around the skies over the armies below, but pilots had little more to do than the obsolete

cavalry galloping over the fields. Planes were used to observe enemy movements, rather like aerial versions of cavalry scouts on horseback. When opposing pilots met in the air, they waved-at least at first. As the war became serious, they began exchanging shots, first with pis­tols and then with machine guns. Most planes were two-seater biplanes with a pilot and an observer. The observer did the “scouting” and fired the gun.

The machine gun was mounted high to prevent bullets from hitting the pro­peller. Another solution to this problem was to move the propeller, putting it and the engine behind the pilot. This pro­duced “pusher” machines such as the Vickers FB5 Gunbus and the DH-2, one of a series of planes designed by British engineer Geoffrey De Havilland (1882— 1965). The weakness of the pusher was that it was exposed to attack from the
rear. To fire behind himself, the gunner had to stand on his seat and was at risk of falling out of the plane, with no parachute to save him. A device called an interrupter gear, which synchronized the firing of guns with the propeller, solved the propeller positioning problem.

In 1896, the brothers heard of the death of aviation pioneer Otto Lilienthal, who had a fatal accident while gliding. The story renewed the Wright’s interest in flying, and they began learning all they could about the subject. After the Wrights read everything they could find, they realized that many aviation books contradicted each other. They decided to conduct their own experiments.

The Wrights chose to carry out their tests near Kitty Hawk, a small village on the sandy barrier islands off the North Carolina coast. The area was low, with only one small hill, and had no trees.

Glider Experiments

The Wrights arrived at Kitty Hawk in September 1900 and spent several weeks carrying out tests with their first glider. At first, they flew the glider as a kite, with no one on board. Finally, in late October, Wilbur Wright made several flights.

The next year, the Wrights took a larger glider to North Carolina. Wilbur made more than 100 flights that sum­mer. The brothers were puzzled, howev­er, that the behavior of the wings did not match some calculations published by Lilienthal. They returned to Dayton to begin new experiments. The Wright brothers built a wind tunnel, which they used to carry out hundreds of tests of different wing shapes.

Armed with revised theories, the Wrights returned to North Carolina in 1902 with a new glider. This time, the results were spectacular. The Wrights carried out more than 1,000 glider flights. Some carried them more than 600 feet (185 meters), and once their glider stayed in the air for 26 seconds.

In 1947, a WAC-Corporal rocket reached a height of 244 miles (390 kilometers) above the White Sands testing ground in New Mexico. This flight opened the door to space-and encouraged government interest-because it showed that rocket technology could now launch satellites. Ten years later, the Russians launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. So began the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Key figures
in the two rival space programs were Robert Gilruth (1913-2000), appointed to direct the U. S. Mercury astronaut pro­gram in 1958, and Sergei Korolyov (1906-1966), who led the Soviet design team behind the Sputnik program.

Spaceflight was front-page news through the 1960s as the United States and the Soviet Union competed to send astronauts into orbit and probes to the planets. Public interest in space reached a peak during the Apollo Moon landings (1969-1972).

Since the 1970s, spaceflight has developed as a multinational scientific activity and a commercial business.

LIFE BEYOND EARTH

The Planetary Society was founded in 1980 by Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray, and Louis Friedman. Its aim is to "inspire and involve the world’s public in space exploration" and to search for extraterrestrial life (life beyond Earth). A worldwide program known as SETI (Searching for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) aims to collect evidence of life on other worlds through detecting radio signals and other forms of transmissions. Currently, Earth is the only planet known to support life, although scientists spec­ulate that life could exist on Earth – type planets orbiting other stars.

ч_______________ J

Most satellite launches, for example, are intended for communications and entertainment, such as TV broadcasting. Spaceflight has become almost routine, although tragedies-such as the losses of two U. S. Space Shuttles, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003-reminded people just how dangerous space can be. Robot space probes have made astonishing voyages, not only to planets but far beyond our solar system. In 1990, NASA’s Voyager 1 probe took a photograph of Earth from a distance of 4 billion miles (6.5 billion kilometers) more than twelve years after it set out on a voyage through space that may well last hundreds of years.

Since the end of the Apollo program in the early 1970s, the most significant manned spacecraft has been the U. S. Space Shuttle. First launched in 1981, the Space Shuttle flies regularly into orbit, delivering supplies to the International Space Station.

The future of spaceflight will proba­bly see a return of astronauts to the Moon and possibly a manned explo­ration trip to Mars. A lunar base might be in existence before the middle of the twenty-first century, and the discovery of water on Mars could even make a Martian colony a possibility.

——————————————— N

SEE ALSO:

• Apollo Program • Astronaut

• Future of Spaceflight • Rocket

• Satellite • Space Probe

___________________________ У

space probe is a robot spacecraft sent far into space. To probe means to investigate, and that is what space probes do. Scientists have sent space probes to the Moon, to the planets, and beyond the solar system into deep space. A probe equipped with sensors, cameras, computers, and a radio transmitter can-within a few hours-discover more about a distant planet than has been gathered in cen­turies of Earth-based astronomy.

A robot space probe needs no air, water, or fuel during its journey through space. Its power comes from tiny nuclear plants or from solar cells that convert sunlight to electrical energy. Once set on its course, a probe can con­tinue to travel through space for years, sending images and data back to Earth.

Flyby probes pass close to their tar – get-a planet, a comet, or an asteroid. Orbital probes go into orbit around a planet or the Sun. Landers descend through the atmosphere to the surface.

Spacelab was a reusable laboratory designed for the Space Shuttle. It allowed scientists to perform experi­ments while orbiting Earth. The labora­tory, mounted inside the Space Shuttle’s cargo bay, was used on many missions. Many experiments tested the effects of weightlessness and space on living things. Spacelab missions have included life science experiments involving human astronauts as well as animals taken into space for scientific research. On April 17, 1998, more than 2,000 living creatures joined the seven crew members of the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-90) for a sixteen-day mission called Neurolab. During the mission, twenty – six experiments focused on studies of the nervous system and how it develops and functions in space. Test subjects included crew members as well as rats, mice, crickets, snails, and fish. This was Spacelab’s last scheduled flight.

_________________________________________________ /

Shuttle Missions

On a standard mission, the crew com­prises five to seven members. It includes a commander, a pilot, payload special­ists, and mission specialists. The special­ists could be engineers in charge of a piece of equipment or scientists con­ducting experiments. On a rescue mis­sion, a Space Shuttle could be flown by three astronauts to bring back all seven crew members from another Space Shuttle that was in trouble.

The Space Shuttle can be used to launch satellites, to repair faulty equip­ment, to transport supplies and crew to space stations, and to perform experi­ments in space. Its cargo bay can hold up to five satellites. A satellite that needs to be placed in a high orbit above the Space Shuttle’s maximum operating altitude of 400 miles (640 kilometers) is boosted by a small rocket motor. The cargo bay also can carry a space labora­tory, inside which scientists can work comfortably.

The Space Shuttle has performed many significant missions. Scientific experiments performed on board have increased knowledge about space travel, microgravity, and how these affect humans and other living things. Space Shuttles have transported satellites into space, transforming our ability to com­municate and broadcast information. The Space Shuttle is used to carry com­ponents and crew to the International Space Station. Space Shuttle missions have installed, maintained, rescued, and repaired numerous space facilities,

mostly notably the Hubble Space Telescope, which the Shuttle carried into space in 1990.

stall is a sudden loss of lift that can be experienced by an air­craft in some circumstances. Pilots are trained to understand why a stall can happen, how to recognize the early signs of a stall, and how to recov­er from a stall if one occurs.

How It Happens

When a fixed-wing aircraft slows down, the speed of the air flowing over its wings decreases, and the wings produce

Г

Angle of attack 25

Separated (turbulent) flow

less lift. While flying slowly, the pilot can increase lift by raising the plane’s nose. As the wings tip up, they produce more lift and more drag. The angle of tilt of a wing is called its angle of attack. If the pilot keeps raising a plane’s nose, the angle of attack becomes so great that the air flowing smoothly over the wings suddenly breaks away from them and changes into turbulent, swirling flow. This angle is called the critical angle of attack. When the smooth airflow over the wing breaks down, lift is suddenly lost, and the aircraft drops downward. If one wing stalls before the other, the plane may roll into a spin.

Stall also affects helicopters. When a helicopter’s main rotor spins, the blades moving in the same direction as the air­craft are called the advancing blades, and the blades traveling in the opposite direction are called the retreating blades. Air flows over the advancing blades faster than it flows over the retreating blades, so the advancing blades experi­ence greater lift. If the airflow over the retreating blades is slow enough, they can stall. The helicopter experiences a sudden loss of lift called a retreating blade stall, but only on one side. The advancing blades still produce lift, so the helicopter rolls over to one side.

Recovering from a Stall

A pilot can recover from a stall in two ways. Pushing the control stick forward lowers a plane’s nose, so that it dives and picks up speed. Air flows smoothly over the wing again, and lift returns.

When a piston engine stops unex­pectedly, it is said to have stalled, but this is completely different from the aerodynamic stall that happens to wings. If a piston engine in an air­craft stalls, the plane does not drop like a stone. It becomes a glider. As it glides down, the pilot can look for a suitable landing spot while trying to restart the engine.

Jet engines can suffer from a problem called compressor stall. The spinning compressor blades inside the engine work like small wings.

Just like wings, they can stall. If the smooth airflow entering a jet engine is disturbed, the compressor blades may stall. A common cause of com­pressor stall is a bird strike, when a bird is sucked into an engine. When a compressor stall happens, the engine makes a loud bang and loses thrust, and the aircraft turns toward the affected side.

_____________________________________________ )

The pilot then can raise the nose and fly straight and level again. The other way to recover from a stall is to increase engine power. When a stalled aircraft accelerates, it lowers its nose, and smooth airflow over its wings is restored. The two methods can be used together. A stall-as well as the recovery

from it-always causes some loss of alti­tude, so a stall near the ground can be particularly dangerous.

Large aircraft are equipped with sys­tems that sense when a stall is about to happen. They warn the pilot by shaking the control stick and sounding a warn­ing. If the pilot does nothing, the system may push the control stick forward to automatically lower the plane’s nose.

An airliner should fly straight and level unless the pilot or autopilot commands it to do something different. If its nose is too high or too low, the pilot can level the plane by tilting its tailplane, which is its horizontal stabilizer. If it is tilted up at the front, the tailplane produces more lift, and the tail rises. If it is tilted down, the plane’s tail sinks lower.

When the Bell X-1 rocket plane made its first high-speed flights just below the speed of sound in the 1940s, pilots found it difficult to control. Shock waves forming on the horizontal stabi­lizer disturbed the air flowing over it so much that the elevators would not work.

————————–

TAILS ON AIRLINERS

The tail of an airliner is more than just an empty shell holding the ver­tical and horizontal stabilizers. It contains a small engine, usually a turbine engine, which is called the Auxiliary Power Unit, or APU. This supplies electrical power, hydraulic power, and air-conditioning when the aircraft is on the ground and its main engines are not running. Some aircraft have APUs that supply power in the air.

Very large airplanes need an extra-large tail. The tailplane on the huge Boeing 747-400 has enough space inside to store 3,300 gallons (about 12,500 liters) of fuel, which enables the plane to fly an addition­al 400 miles (650 kilometers).

To solve the problem, Bell made the whole stabilizer move, not just the elevator. Supersonic aircraft today still have this type of all-moving or all­flying tailplane, which is known as a stabilator.

n everyday speech, the words weight and mass are used to mean the same thing. To scientists and engineers, however, they have different meanings. Mass is the amount of matter an object is made of. Its weight is the downward force acting on it due to gravity. Mass is a number, but weight is a force. Mass is constant, but weight depends on the strength of gravity acting on the mass.

The weight and mass of an object are linked in the following equation: weight = mass x g

in which g is the acceleration the object would experience if it fell. At Earth’s
surface, this is 32 feet per second per sec­ond (9.75 meters per second per second).

For most of human history, an object’s weight meant its weight on Earth’s surface. As gravity is more or less the same everywhere on Earth, it did not matter if weight and mass were mixed up. It matters today, because spacecraft can be sent into Earth orbit and away to the Moon and planets, where the force of gravity acting on them may be quite different from the strength of Earth’s gravity.

Mass

If an object is given a push, it acceler­ates. The size of acceleration depends on the mass of the object. If a small mass and a large mass are pushed by the same force, the small mass accelerates faster. This is because the large mass offers more resistance to the force than the small mass.

The tendency of a mass to resist a change in its motion is called inertia. The bigger the mass, the greater the inertia. This is impor­tant when calculating how aircraft and spacecraft will accelerate when their engines produce a cer­tain amount of thrust.

The Eindecker monoplane (1915) devel­oped by Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker (1890-1939) was the first modern fight­er plane. It was agile, could fly at 83 miles per hour (134 kilometers per hour), and could dive steeply without its wings breaking off-an accident all too com­mon in less robust aircraft.

Most airplanes of this period were still made of wood and fabric. The first all-metal plane was the J-1, designed in 1915 by German engineer Hugo Junkers (1859-1935). After this model, progress

INTERRUPTER GEAR

In 1915, French pilot Roland Garros shot down a German Albatross air­plane. Garros surprised his opponent by firing bullets through the pro­peller. The French Morane plane had deflectors fitted to the propeller blades, which prevented bullet dam­age. The French plane was later captured by the Germans and stud­ied by Anthony Fokker, who invented an improved system called an inter­rupter gear. This device basically made the propeller fire the gun, so the spitting bullets synchronized with the spinning propeller.

was rapid. By 1917, the Sopwith Camel, a twin-gun biplane built in Great Britain, could reach speeds of 124 miles per hour (200 kilometers per hour) and climb to a height of around 22,000 feet (6,700 meters).

Fighter pilots, known as aces, devel­oped air combat tactics and maneuvers, such as the Immelman Turn, named after German flier Max Immelman, who was killed in 1916. The most famous fighter ace was the German Manfred von Richthofen, known as the “Red Baron.” Another German pilot, Oswald Boelcke, took the lead in drawing up group tactics and organizing pilots into squadrons. Starting in 1915, pilots flew in formation instead of wandering alone in the skies over battlefields.

The Wrights were now ready to try pow­ered flight. Charles Taylor, a mechanic in their bicycle shop, built a four-cylinder engine. The Wrights spent three months designing a propeller, a difficult problem that produced several heated arguments.

The brothers went back to North Carolina with their powered plane, the Flyer, in late September 1903. However, bad weather and mechanical problems plagued them through the entire fall. At last, on December 14, Wilbur attempted the first flight. The plane rose briefly into the air, but the engine stalled and the plane crashed into the sand. Fortunately, the repairs were easy.

On December 17, 1903, the weather allowed another attempt. At 10:35 a. m., Orville took off. In 12 seconds of flying, he cruised 120 feet (37 meters). The brothers had three more successful flights that day, two by Wilbur and one more by Orville. The last, piloted by

ROBERT C. CLOWRY, Preildwnt and Oanaral Managtr.

RECEIVED >t

іщг. Jhristrms.

Wilbur, was the longest (59 seconds) and went the farthest: 852 feet (260 meters). That evening, a powerful wind picked the Flyer up and smashed it into the ground. The brothers packed up the pieces of the aircraft and went home.

Most probes are launched by a multi­stage rocket from the ground. There are three ways to send spacecraft into space using a rocket: sounding trajectory, Earth orbit, and Earth escape.

Sounding rockets were often fired into space during the 1940s and 1950s and are still used today. A sounding rocket can be fired to an altitude of about 100 miles (160 kilometers), at a

HIGH-SPEED LAUNCH

The fastest space launches have all involved space probes. In 1972 NASA’s Pioneer 10 was launched toward Jupiter at 32,400 miles per hour (52,130 kilo­meters per hour). In 1990, the probe Ulysses, on a mission to study the Sun, reached 34,450 miles per hour (55,430 kilometers per hour) during launch. New Horizons, launched in 2006 toward Pluto, was boosted to 35,800 miles per hour (57,600 kilometers per hour), as it left Earth’s orbit for deep space.

О A NASA sounding rocket is fired in 1988. Sounding rockets only reach the fringes of space, but they offer an inexpensive way of gathering data.

maximum speed of about 5,000 miles per hour (8,050 kilometers per hour). After its engine burns out, the rocket begins its descent back to Earth. Scientific instruments in the nose of the sounding rocket send information to the ground by telemetry (radio) or may be retrieved by parachute.

To enter Earth orbit, a rocket trajec­tory must be at an angle so that it flies parallel to Earth’s surface. When its booster motors cut out, the top­most stage of the rocket must be going fast enough to enter orbit and not fall back to the ground under the pull of Earth’s gravity.

To escape completely from Earth’s gravity and become a planetary probe, a spacecraft must reach a velocity of around 25,000 miles per hour (40,200 kilometers per hour). It will then fly away from Earth, gradually slowing down. It may go into orbit around the Sun, or it may be attracted by the gravitational pull of a planet, such as Mars or Jupiter.