Category FLIGHT and M ОТІOIM

In September 1940, the German Luftwaffe switched its attention to bombing British cities, beginning the Blitz. The British retaliated by bombing the German capital of Berlin. These offensives were the start of a strategic bombing war.

The Germans did not have a heavy bomber. Lacking a first-class bombsight to help them bomb from high altitudes, German designers had been told to give all bombers a dive-bombing capability so they could dive low over their targets for accuracy.

Dive bombers attacked in a steep dive; the pilot released his bomb above the target and zoomed away to avoid the explosion. Dive bombers were good at attacking ground targets, such as airfields, and enemy ships; the German Ju-87 Stuka was widely used for this.

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This bomber’s weakness was its relative­ly slow speed, which made it vulnerable to fighters.

The British and the Americans were building four-engine heavy bombers, such as the Lancaster, Halifax, B-17, and B-24. From the time the United States joined the war (after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941), these bombers played an important role in Allied offensive strategies.

The worst skyjacking in history hap­pened in the United States in 2001. On the morning of September 11, nineteen terrorists hijacked four U. S. airliners: American Airlines Flights 11 and 77 and United Airlines Flights 93 and 175. Flights 11 and 175 had taken off from Boston, Massachusetts; Flight 77 left from Dulles Airport in Washington, D. C.; and Flight 93 departed from Newark, New Jersey. The first three airplanes were on early-morning flights to Los Angeles, California; the fourth was heading for San Francisco, California.

Two of the hijacked planes (Flight 11 and Flight 175) were deliberately flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Flight 11 hit the North Tower just before 8:45 a. m. Flight 175 hit the South Tower at 9:03 a. m. Both 110-story structures became fiery infernos, pouring black smoke into a blue sky, before collapsing to the ground. At 9:40 a. m., Flight 77 was flown into the side of the Pentagon in Washington, D. C.

On Flight 93, the hijackers-who had smuggled knives onboard-had locked themselves in the cockpit and headed the plane toward Washington, D. C. Flight 93’s passengers learned from cell

О Terrorists flew an airplane into the Pentagon building in Washington, D. C., as part of their skyjacking operation on September 11, 2001.

phone calls to friends and relatives what had happened to the other three planes. They decided to attack the hijackers. The plane went out of control and crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Every person onboard the four hijacked airplanes, including the hijack­ers, was killed. Furthermore, many more people were killed on the ground in New York City and Washington, D. C. The total death count was 2,752 at the World Trade Center, 189 at the Pentagon, and 44 in Pennsylvania.

he space race was a period of rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during which the two nations competed in the exploration of space. The race was at its height in the 1950s and 1960s.

The Cold War

The space race had its origins in the Cold War, a time of mutual suspicion between the United States and the Soviet Union that began after World War II (1939-1945). The hostility resulted from the deep divide between two political systems: Soviet communism and U. S. capitalism, or free enterprise. The two nations became the world’s military super-powers, each building up huge stocks of weapons, including rockets.

In 1945, after Germany’s defeat in World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union acquired German rock­et technology. The German V-2 rocket could fly faster than sound and reach a height of 60 miles (96 kilometers). German scientists were taken to the Soviet Union and the United States, where they worked on more advanced rockets for their adopted countries.

On October 4, 1957, the rocket carrying “Elementary Satellite 1,” or Sputnik 1, took off from the desert near Tyura-Tam, in what is now the Kazakh Republic. All went well, and the first radio signals from space told the waiting Soviet sci­entists that Sputnik 1 was in orbit. They announced their success to the world, and almost every newspaper, radio, and television network carried the story. Sputnik 1 was headline news. Astronomers trained radio telescopes on the tiny satellite. Amateur radio enthu­siasts in many countries picked up the satellite’s “beep beep” radio signals as it passed overhead.

Sputnik 1 had a brief working life, but its historic flight proved that a human-made craft could survive launch and fly in orbit. The scientific data gath­ered from the flight was limited, but Sputnik 1 did help to identify the density of the layers in the upper atmos­phere and provided useful information on how radio signals from space were received on Earth.

Scientists had feared that space dust or meteoroid impact might damage the spacecraft. Even a minute hole in the satellite would have caused a detectable drop in pressure and temperature. However, Sputnik 1 continued to orbit Earth undamaged. The spacecraft’s radio batteries ran out before the end of October, after which no more signals were received. The satellite stayed in orbit until January 1958, when it burned up as it reentered Earth’s atmosphere, having traveled about 37 million miles (60 million kilometers).

Shock waves explain why World War II pilots lost control of their aircraft in high-speed dives. As shock waves devel­op over the wing, they disturb the air so violently that the smooth flow breaks up into a swirling turbulent flow. The air­craft’s control surfaces are trapped inside this chaotic air. Robbed of the smooth airflow they need, they cease to work. The turbulence caused by shock waves is the reason for the violent shak­ing that World War II pilots experienced.

Modern supersonic aircraft do not suffer from these problems because of their shape. Their wings are thinner and more swept back, so they cut cleanly through the air and delay the formation of shock waves. When the aircraft goes faster than the speed of sound and the shock wave cone forms around it, the swept-back shape of the wings means that the whole aircraft fits neatly inside the shock cone and flies more smoothly.

he capability of a fixed-wing air­craft to take off and land vertical­ly is known as vertical takeoff and landing, or VTOL. Some aircraft have the ability to take off and land on a very short runway-these are V/STOL aircraft. V/STOL stands for vertical or short takeoff and landing. Still others are STOVL aircraft-they are capable of a short takeoff and vertical landing. The terms are used to describe a small group of fixed-wing aircraft. They do not include helicopters, airships, or rockets, all of which also have the ability of vertical takeoff.

Propeller Planes

Fixed-wing aircraft normally need a long takeoff run to get airborne. They cannot take off until their wings are moving through the air fast enough to create enough lift to overcome the plane’s weight. If a fixed-wing aircraft is to take off vertically, it needs to direct its engine power downward with enough force to overcome its weight.

Propeller planes can do this by tilting their engines and propellers so they work like helicopter rotors. The V-22 Osprey, a V/STOL aircraft, swivels its propeller engines up for takeoff and landing and angles them forward for regular flight. Its propellers work like helicopter rotors for vertical flight and like propellers for forward flight, so they are called prop-rotors. They are made bigger and stronger than normal pro­pellers because they must support the entire weight of the aircraft for takeoff and landing. Aircraft such as the V-22 Osprey are called tilt-rotors.

When a wing slices through air, two things happen to the air. First, the air

О The new Eurofighter Typhoon has delta wings and uses canards for lift and maneuverability.

flowing over the curved top of the wing speeds up. As Bernoulli’s principle states, when air speeds up, its pres­sure falls. Low air pressure above a wing and higher pressure below it produce an upward force. Second, a wing deflects air downward. According to Newton’s third law of motion, forcing air downward produces an equal and opposite force that pushes the wing upward. The total upward force on a wing is lift.

If a wing is tilted up at the front, it deflects air downward even more power­fully and produces more lift and more drag. The angle between a wing and the airflow is called the wing’s angle of attack. If the angle of attack is increased too much, the wing will stall. When a wing stalls, the smooth flow of air over it breaks up, and lift sud­denly disappears.

In daylight raids, bombers suffered high losses from fighter attacks and also from anti-aircraft gunnery, and so they

switched to night attacks. In the early part of the war, no air force was well equipped for night fighting. Pilots had little chance of spotting an enemy plane in the dark until the invention of
airborne radar changed night fighting into a battle of technologies. Most night fighters had a crew of two: a pilot and a radar operator. Typical night fighters were twin-engine airplanes such as the German Me-110, British Beaufighter, and U. S. P-61 Black Widow.

The Allies built up their bombing attacks. The RAF bombed at night, using “pathfinder” planes flying ahead of the main force to locate and illuminate tar­get areas. The U. S. Army sent big forma­tions of bombers in daylight to pound selected targets. Starting in 1942, the U. S. Eighth Army Air Force flew mis­sions across Europe from bases in Britain. U. S. commanders, such as Colonel Curtis LeMay, were confident that their bombers—bristling with machine guns—could fight their way to and from the target, especially when shielded by fighter escorts. The P-51 Mustang, the best U. S. fighter of the war, could fly with the bombers from Britain to Berlin, Germany, and back. By 1943, U. S. bombers were flying to Germany in combat wings of fifty-four planes. They flew in formations over 1 mile (1.6 kilo­meters) across. As more escort fighters became available, these formations were cut to thirty-six planes, flying in four groups of nine.

Responsibility for the attacks was lev­eled at al-Qaeda, a secretive Islamist ter­rorist organization led by Osama bin Laden. U. S. President George W. Bush announced a “war on terror,” and U. S. warplanes were ordered to shoot down any hijacked airliner that might pose a danger. No-fly zones were enforced.

Some of the 9/11 terrorists had been living in the United States and had even taken flying lessons there. The 9/11 attacks led to a review of the nation’s security. Stricter antihijacking regula­tions were introduced to prevent explo­sives or weapons from being taken onto airplanes. Air marshals disguised as pas­sengers traveled on flights, ready to dis­arm potential skyjackers. Within a few weeks, President Bush had signed a new law, the Anti-Terrorism Act, giving the U. S. government increased powers.

Other suicide attacks were foiled. Later in 2001, for example, law enforce­ment agents seized al-Qaeda terrorist

Richard Reid (a British citizen), who had been planning to blow up a U. S. airliner with a bomb hidden in his shoe.

Today, passenger and baggage screening systems are provided by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), part of the Department of Homeland Security. Under new secure flight arrangements, airlines and securi­ty services exchange information to identify all persons buying airline tick­ets, checking identities against those of known terrorists. Counterterrorist intelli­gence in the United States is spearhead­ed by the National Counterterrorism Center, which took over the State Department’s responsibility in that area.

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In the 1940s, some scientists believed that rockets held the key to exploring space. Much postwar space research involved testing missiles to carry nuclear weapons, and this research was carried out in secret. Although little was known about the Soviet program, American scientists suspected that Soviet rockets were bigger than those being tested in the United States, which included the Viking and WAC Corporal. In 1949, however, the United States fired the world’s first two-stage rocket, using a V-2 as the first stage and a Corporal for the second stage. This two-stage rocket was capable of reaching space.

July 1957 to December 1958 was designated International Geophysical Year. As part of this worldwide science program, the United States planned to launch the first artificial satellites into orbit around Earth. With the Cold War still at its height, there was little exchange of information between the United States and the Soviet Union. Apart from releasing some information about radio communications for con­trolling a satellite, the Soviets gave no hint of what was to come.

Finally, on October 4, 1957, Moscow announced that Soviet scientists had launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first space satellite. With Sputnik 1 bleeping its radio signals from orbit, the Soviets had grabbed the lead in the space race.